Computer Basics

The society in which we live is complex and sophisticated. As consumers we demand a variety of goods and services to enable us to maintain the quality of life we enjoy. In order to satisfy these demands, suppliers must produce the goods and services, which the consumer wants by combining factors of production such as land, labor and capital in the most efficient manner. To do this the hiring of workers, rent or purchase of the appropriate premises, and maybe, even investing in plant and machinery, as well as the raw materials needed to produce the final product. These are just some of the factors that have to be considered before the final product is produced at a profit. This is achieved under commercial organizations. In short, an organization is a group of people working together to achieve a goal of supplying a demand. In Britain, the economy is made up of the Public Sector and the Private Sector. The Public Sector Company provides goods and services through the state in much the same way as commercial organizations. This sector also employs staff, occupy premises and raise capital. The public sector seeks to fulfil a service such as education, hospitals, police, etc. These services are necessary to provide society with order, in which individuals are free to express their demands and producers are able to meet such wants.   The prime objective of the private sector is to make a profit. These organizations are made up of several different sectors. They are a mixture of large and small business. For example: – Banks, Railtrack, Imperial Chemical Industries, Solicitors, Accountants.   Sole traders are normally owners of small businesses such as the newsagent or the local cafe. The sole trader has unlimited liability and has a greater risk than a partnership. However, he has total control of his business and is alone in the making of all decisions relating to his business. The sole trader keeps all profits but in the majority of cases works very long hours, it is also very hard to find the time for things such as holidays. Partnerships has a minimum of two people and no more than twenty partners, who have made an agreement to work together and to provide capital for the benefit of the company. Their aim is to make a profit. These businesses are normally on a larger scale. Sleeping partners in the business i. e. profit share partners do not play an active role in the organization. A Deed of Partnership is normally drawn up when setting up a partnership. This sets out the terms and conditions such as the objectives, profits, transfer of ownership, individual salaries, decision-making, etc. THE PRIVATE LIMITED COMPANY (LTD) Private Limited Companies have certain legal binding restrictions before it can trade, these are: The Memorandum of Association This consists of the company relating to the outside world i. . : name and rules, address of the business, the names of the directors and the purpose of the organization. The Article of Association relates to the internal matters of the organization. When the Article of Association form in completed it is then registered and permits the company to trade. THE PUBLIC LIMITED COMPANY (PLC) A Public Limited Company has similar rules to limited companies with the ex ceptions: Shares can be openly bought and sold A vast amount of capital can be made available through the issue of extra shares. The minimum share capital required is ? 50,000. No limits to the amount of shares a shareholder can have. The functional areas of an organization such as a music venue can be vast. Therefore, the areas that will be dealt with will be limited. The marketing department is responsible for all publicity that the organization needs to make public awareness and the events available. They also can organize suppliers, as well as the delivery of these items. This department is in charge of all venue publicity and public awareness. The accounts department is responsible for the payment of all bills/invoices. When an invoice is presented for payment, the manager concerned first checks it against the appropriate delivery note. Only then, will this department approve payment automatic and regular payments such as, standing orders and direct debits are also done through this department. These systems of payments are required to pay bills like gas, electric and other suppliers used on a regular basis. The wages department is responsible for the wages and salaries of all personnel working for the venue. It includes wage payments for company directors, full and part-time staff to the artists and musicians working on an evening event. They also supply wage slips that supply information such as number of hours worked, overtime, bonus, holiday†s etc. The required tax deducted and payment is made through the BACS system directly into the employee†s bank account in most cases. The personnel department is responsible for the welfare of all employees within the organization. Personnel are responsible for recruitment, training and development of all staff. They also ensure that the venue and bar managers carry out the required company training. They hold all of the organizations staff records. To keep their files updated these departments regularly liaise with the wages department over staff sickness, holiday entitlements etc. IT Services All incoming areas i. e. bar and entrance fees are linked to a computerized system, therefore the IT services department even though small plays a vital role in this organization. This department is divided into two, the Operations and the Programming.

American Democracy Essay

Democracy had its origin in Rome, primeval Greece and both South and North America and has gained roots nearly all over the entire world and states become efficient and effective in there responsibilities if they utilize this concept. I will therefore discuss in this paper the aspect of democracy in America and the types of democracy that is direct and indirect types and point out the one used in this country particularly in California State. I will also proceed to highlight both democratic and undemocratic issues in America. Definition of democracy Democracy is simply defined as government by the people for the people. Essentially it illustrates small units of interrelated structures of administration. Research indicates that the primary characteristics of democracy comprise of administrations founded on popular rule, open and just elections, safeguarding political/opinionated minorities, high opinion of fundamental human privileges/rights, and impartiality before rule of law, and opinionated pluralism. (Anthony, 1957) Direct Democracy This is the practice of democracy which provides an opportunity to the citizens of a particular country to be involved in decision making process directly without depending on legislative bodies who act as there representatives. Many scholars argue that this kind of democracy is a feeble structure commonly practiced by comparatively small societies. This type of democracy is not only about the issue of voting but also includes referendum. According to the research I conducted, California state practices this direct democracy as witnessed through the making of decisions using referendum style, for example in the year 1998 the citizens of California who numbered twenty million engaged in referendum. (Markoff, 1996) Indirect democracy Unlike direct democracy representatives or intermediaries of the citizens of a state or nation play a key role in decision making process. These intermediaries are usually elected by the citizens and they have the duty to protect the interest of the electorate because they have the mandate to do so. This kind of democracy has led to the practice of what is termed as representative democracy whereby the citizens elect administration executives who formulate decisions that will represent the interest of those citizens. Representative democratic system is a type of indirect parliamentary government whereby such officials or intermediaries are democratically elected and typically complicated to recall them if they do not carry their duties as required. This form is usually based on a principle called Edmund Burkes which declares that the intermediaries selected should carry their duties based on the sense of what is right and wrong. (Joseph, 1950) Views of various scholars on American democracy There are many people who expressed different views about democracy and include the following: Robert A. Dahl who looked at the fundamental suppositions of democratic hypothesis, experiment them in opposition to the enquiries put forward by it opponents and build the concept of democratic system in to fresh and rational whole. Dahl deduces that there are various directions that democratic system has to move if superior autonomous countries are to subsist. (Dahl, 1989) Alexis de Tocqueville also had reflective outcomes regarding the theory of democratic organization. Alexi’s ideas emphasized on the issue of equality being an important ingredient to democracy; he further argues that without equality crime cases will rise. He also emphasizes on sovereignty or autonomy of states and also points out the importance of public opinion as the other key ingredients to achieving democracy. Another contributor is Jane Mansbridge who believed on democratic process and she dedicated her political opinions on democracy and equality in America. She argues that equality must prevail in order to achieve justice and only through democratic means that this equality can be realized. Thomas Marshall contributed to democracy in America by working to changing the existing laws then to that rules which embraced democracy for example he worked on voting rights among others. He also emphasized the issue of equality and he said that it propelled the country in the direct direction that is being democratic. He also worked tirelessly in reinforcing substantive egalitarianism in America by guaranteeing that sparkling method of checks and equilibriums among the three divisions of administration put forward in the American constitution was functioning. On his part Richard Hofstadter proposed that both anti-intellectualism and utilitarianism are outcomes experienced faced on the road to democratization of information or knowledge. Hofstadter preliminary worry of function of the institution of higher education and the scholars in the community developed into an influential appraisal of the current principle of learning and the position of civic education in America. (Johansen, 1996)

Jim Jarmusch: Reflecting the History of Independent Films in America Essay

Films, just like people, possess colorful history. Its origin can be rooted as early as 1860s when devices to capture motion pictures were invented. The year 1888 marked the making of the world’s earliest film—the Roundhay Garden Scene—by Louis Le Prince. But early filmmakers felt no contentment in silent and black-and-white films. Thus, the succeeding movies slowly gained narratives, followed later on by musical scores, inserted with sound effects, and then became colored. However, the evolution of film never ended there. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, another milestone in filmmaking took place—the birth of independent films. One of the most- acclaimed and popular indie film directors in the United States who made a great impact during that time is Jim Jarmusch. Until now, his films are regarded, not only in America but also in European and Asian countries, as some of the finest independent films ever made. His life and works became an inspiration and model for other filmmakers and film critics, which probably caused Juan Suarez’ to write his biography. About the Book Jim Jarmusch ( Contemporary Film Directors), the title of Juan Suarez’ book, in a biographical sketch of the American director Jim Jarmusch, not merely narrating the latter’s life, influences, works, and achievements, but analyzing as well the content and themes of his films by relating them to history and socio-political issues present during these films were created. Summary: A Stranger Here Myself The introductory paragraphs of the book talk about the salient characteristics of Jim Jarmusch’s films. Jarmusch is known for his unique style— emphasizing slow- movements, minimalistic space, characters’ exploration, intimate scenes, cynical humor, blank effect, and art cinema during 1960s to 1970s. His characters are often distant from the spectators, alone and aloof, but not necessarily sad or tragic. His plots, on the other hand, are based more on non- dramatic situations rather than on conflicts. In addition, Jarmusch focuses on the visual and aural aspects of film. Meanwhile, the themes of Jarmusch movies are based on postmodern politics, specifically on issues of transients and immigrants. He is also fascinated in exploring ethnicity, nationality, and social classes. Juan Suarez then enumerates his objectives in writing the book. First is to analyze what makes Jim Jarmusch’s films distinct, and second is to analyze those films in a larger context, separate from the director, using them in understanding historical developments, such as the New York vanguards, rock n’ roll, punk, hip hop, Beat literature, postwar art and cinemas, structural films, European surrealism and others. Akron/ The Cinematheque/ Lightning over Water This particular section discusses about the early life and works of Jim Jarmursh, as well as his early influences. The above keywords—Akron, The Cinematheque, and Lightning over Water—all played a vital role in his life. Jarmusch was born in Akron, Ohio in 1953, which by then is an important industrial point. Here, he was immensely exposed to rock n’ roll, radio DJ’s, and cars that eventually became appeared in his films. After studying college in Columbia, he went to Paris where he was exposed to Henri Langlois, founder of the art gallery Cinematheque. Langlois was also one of Jarmusch’s influences and who was known for his participation in the French New Wave. When he went back, Jarmusch enrolled at New York University where he was appointed as a student assistant to Nicholas Ray. With this, Jarmusch was exposed in Ray’s ongoing film The Lightning over Water. Right after this, Jarmusch made his first film, Permanent Vacation. His early influences were reflected in this particular work—â€Å" classical American cinema, European art, and downtown experimental culture † ( Suarez, p. 9). Downtown Post-Pop The section tackles downtown New York being a topic in Jarmusch’s films, particularly during the mid-1970s and early 1980s. Experimental art during such times was still a combination of pop, minimalism, and performance; experimental cinema, on one hand, focused more on narratives and social contextualization. In addition, Suarez included in this section the status of experimental art in various fields, as well as the people concerned (i. e. The Kitchen). Punk The author particularly discusses in this section Jirmusch’s contribution in the blurring of boundaries between experimental art and mass art. His made his works through the punk or new wave culture, particularly focusing on the role of music. Punk filmmakers introduced again the use and role of content in experimental films by utilizing â€Å" pastiched film noir, thrillers, exploitation and television serials † (Suarez, p. 17). Most of these films were rooted on the themes tackling trash culture and rock n’ roll: the 1960s underground. Venues of these films, on the other hand, were taken inside downtown clubs such as Mudd, Club 57, and Max’s Kansas City. With the loud sound offered by the nightclubs, experimental films became known for the following characteristics: encouraging spectators to be distracted by loud music, dancing, drinking, and socializing, rather than to be in full concentration when viewing. Similarly, the characters were mostly punk musicians such as John Lurie, leader of Lounge Lizard, for the film The Offenders. Jim Jarmusch, in fact, was a member of the band Del Byzanteens. Pretty Vacant Although Jarmusch tried to disconnect punk scenes from his films Permanent Vacation and Stranger than Paradise, he nevertheless acknowledged the influence of punk culture in his filmmaking. Permanent Vacation was made possible through the money granted to him by the Louis B. Mayer Foundation. Because of its length, the film was turned down when Jarmusch presented it as his graduation project. The movie explores the life of Allie, â€Å" a tourist on a permanent vacation † (Suarez, p. 21). The story was told in first-person point- of- view. Allie was recounting his remaining days in New York before leaving for Paris. Here, he narrated his intentions for his girlfriend Leila, visited his mother Ruth who is in psychiatric hospital, met several friends and acquaintances, and stole a car. The movie is said to be an early manifestation of Jirmusch’s navigation towards magic realism that will be evident in his future films, infusing fantasies and dreamlike features in the story. For example, Allie first speech was: â€Å" I can’t get any sleep†¦I have my dreams while I am awake. † ( Suarez, p. 22). This statement clearly shows the blurring of reality and dreams in the said film. Even the music used in this particular film was somehow eerie and creepy, composed mainly of Javanese gamelan music. In addition, most scenes were static takes and focused on minimalistic details. This style presented in the Permanent Vacation is truly characterized by Jirmusch’s unique way of blending minimalism, stories of outsiders, downtown themes, and â€Å" stylized narratives that subtly blend the real and the unreal †(Suarez, p. 27). Work Cited Suarez, Juan Antonio. Jim Jarmusch Contemporary Film Directors. USA: University of Illinois Press, 2007

East and South East Asia Differences Term Paper

East and South East Asia Differences - Term Paper Example The Asian Economic Miracle: Asian "Tigers" According to Chong (284), the Southeast Asian "tigers" is terminology whose usage is in reference to the Southeast Asian economies such as Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong and Indonesia. Chong (284) elucidates that the term economic miracle has found usage in the definition of the speedier growth amid these nations within the past decades reaching its heights in the 1990s and culminating into the fiscal crisis of 1998. Reportedly, this era of economic augmentation brought with it an appreciable modernity as well as superior living standards amid their populace. Chong (284) observes that the accelerated development is traceable back to the sixties when the East Asian wealth grew at a miraculous rate given the slower over global rates. The subsequent decades witnessed similar growth rates that were far better than any other nation across the globe. According to Chong (284), none of the nations within this matrix experience wealth appreciation lesser than the highest values re corded else where within the globe. According to Cardarelli & Vivek (64) the developments witnessed in the south east and Southeast Asia are the results of two principal wealth creation strategies. Firstly, the considerable state involvement and secondly is the design and implementation of a successful export orient wealth augmentation base. ... According to Chong (284), China bears considerable resemblance to its southeastern neighbors with a characteristic strong aristocratic leadership and dependence on export-oriented growth model for its fiscal and wealth creation enhancements. Additionally, the wealth expansions in china have appreciably enhanced the modernity with observable increment in the overall living standards. Nonetheless, the nations persist to experience principal environmental predicaments which are inclusive of huge floods, extreme weather situations as well as recent life fatal accidental incidences within its rapidly progressing transport section. In spite of the closed up political system, China enjoys considerable levels of interactions with the rest of the globe. Cardarelli & Vivek (79) observes that such interactions are evident in its massive exports and enormous foreign exchange preserve. According to Cardarelli & Vivek (80), Chinese exports in the preceding year totaled about 1.5 trillion dollars with an overall global ranking of number two. Similarly, its imports were a considerable 1.3 trillion, which was third globally, while attracting massive foreign preserve of close to 2.6 trillion fiscal units. This massive reserve ensures China ended the preceding year as the leader in the foreign deals. Similarly, the past year saw Chinese external investment increment to about 279 billion dollars while the unswerving foreign deals reached an unbelievable 578 billion dollars. Cardarelli & Vivek (80) believe that these massive exports are confirmation of the presumed excessive dependency on exports.

Capstone Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Capstone - Research Paper Example The company also deals with ensuring that the personnel can provide renovation services. The main purpose of the company is to provide advice and assessment services for individuals who wish to be qualified in building and renovating. Capstone is aimed at laying out the mechanisms of support of enhancing the technical skills of individuals who hope to further their understanding on building. The company ensures that individuals are provided with a qualified builder’s license to have properly designed and safe buildings. Building an engineering school at Lynn University requires implementing a proper layout structure of the site and the environment that surrounds the building. The successful completion of an attractive engineering complex requires a package that meets the technical approach utilized in the licensing state body. As investors, reading at the background of capstone is inevitable that it will provide a properly elevated engineering school at the University of Lynn. 2. Culture Capstone empowers its superior people to ensure that they deliver to their subordinates. Empowering the superiors gives light to the subordinates as they are directed towards the correct path. The company holds a culture of freedom as the employees are allowed to air their thoughts on given designs and layouts. In the building and construction industry it is important to give rise to new designs that may facilitate a better engineering building. Considering that the construction should cater for a growing institution, the design should facilitate the different number of students that will be using the new building. The company recruits individuals that hold a high passion for construction. Pride in what the employees does is emphasizes as they are the direct marketers of the company. Strong relevance on persistence and strong work ethics is an important aspect in ensuring that the integrity of the company continues to flourish with time. The culture of holding high integ ral values sets to set the company apart from their competitive companies. 3. Mission Statement Capstone Construction Company’s mission is to provide value added services to the customers through generating lasting partnerships in the construction process. The company’s aim is to continue providing reliable customers to existing and new customers (Breton & Wintrobe, 1995). 4. Product The product of capstone will include in ensuring that it provide a post modern engineering building will be divided in different sections of the building process. The foundation, the form building and the roofing will act as a guideline of producing the finished product. Foundation building is important as it will determine the ability of the building to stand alone. The building aesthetic will also determine the products used for construction. Lastly the finishing plays an important role as it will attract other projects of the similar design. The type of products to be used includes wood , stone, glass, concrete and masonry tools. The roof will be pre-engineered to support the structural wall systems 5. Gantt Chart Diagram This is an analysis of the processes involved in making one project process move. It will emulate the different steps of the building process from the foundation to the roofing and finishing process. Construction of the engineering building will require an articulate process that will show progress from the commencement to the finishing of the process. Continued assessment will also be included to aid in the report making and

Politics of climate change science and its uses and abuses Essay

Politics of climate change science and its uses and abuses - Essay Example nd the challenges that he encountered during his research from Papal, fellow scientists and even had to be held under house rest for the rest of his life. He shows that the progress of scientific knowledge is determined by lack of political dictation. Politics cannot dictate what scientists research on, nor can their findings be ignored even if they threaten our beliefs or personal economic circumstance. On the other hand, Sarewitz supports that there is looming climate change crisis which he says is grounded on scientific rationality that lacks, moral base, experience and empathy. This is a rationality that relies on natural sciences and economics and excludes history, culture and politics. In his case, science and climate policy may not be adequate ways of combating climate change. Rather a change in the morality of the society and the need to care about science, rationality and truth, he argues are the key towards scientific rationalism. The film, an inconvenient truth, produced by Al Gore also identifies with the presence of a looming climate change and global warming. Gore discusses the scientific facts behind global warming showing how it affects the environment. He provides the effects that result from failure to respond to this crisis and points out an inconvenient truth of what all individual can do to conserve and protect the

Career Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Career Plan - Essay Example In this respect, graduates possessing degree in FCS are facilitated with the opportunity of building an effective career in different professional areas relating to dietetics, hospitality, education, communication and interior design among others. Additionally, individuals after the completion of their FCS course are recognized to have high career demand in the present job market. (Iowa State University, â€Å"Family and Consumer Sciences Education and Studies (FCEdS)†). In this context, I have planned to pursue course in FCS with the aim of possessing better career opportunities. Professionals with FCS graduates have developed their career path successfully with a better competitive position. The FCS professionals are also facilitated with the opportunity of having better career options in their career life owing to diversified specialization options. Presently, graduates on completion of FCS course are able to build successful career path with better job security as well as sustainability. I am an undergraduate student at present and I have planned to pursue graduate degree course in the field of FCS with the intention of having better career opportunities after completion of graduate degree. I have planned to develop a career in FCS, as the course program will aid me in developing skill sets in different areas that include communication, creativity, critical thinking and collaboration. Subsequently, the skill sets acquired from FCS course are mostly demanded in job market. The coursework and skill sets will also facilitate me in enhancing life quality of different individuals. Additionally, the course will also aid in building interrelationship amid people within communities in different economic, physical as well as social environment. The report published by the ‘U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) signified that graduates in FCS pursuing profession as nutritionists as well as dietitians are

MICRO PORTFOLIO TASK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

MICRO PORTFOLIO TASK - Essay Example The six large producers have equal share of market demand and they have successfully threatened the entry of other firms in the industry. According to the viewpoint of the researcher, the firms in the above market are in an Oligopolistic market structure. In this type of a market structure, there are two to ten sellers in the industry. The price and output decisions undertaken by each firm is on the basis of strategic behaviour. In this type of a market structure, each of the above six firms have the power to influence the market demand. This means that each firm undertakes the decision about the prices and the quantity of output to be produced on the basis of the assumption of the business decisions undertaken by the other potential rivals in the market. However, it would be interesting to note that degree competition in the above mentioned Oligopolistic market is zero. The six large firms in the above case are enjoying equal market share and hence, equal profit. This means that the firms have undertaken the decision of Cartel in the Oligopolistic market structure. ... However, on the whole, the market demand curve is downward (Manne, 2012). Figure 1: Profit of Each Firm (Source: McEachern, 2012) The above graph shows the equal profit shared by each of the firm. Cartel in the Oligopolistic market structure which occurs when the nature of the product sold by each of the firm is less differentiated. In the above case, all the firms are engaged in the production of less differentiated cereals. The Herfindahl index is the index that measures the size of each of the firms in a particular industry and comments on the level of existing competition in there. It is calculated by the sum of the squares of the market shares by each of the firm in the industry. An increase in the value of the index indicates a fall in the level of competition on the industry and a rise in the level of market power. The value of Herfindahl index for the above concerned case: Where, N= number of firms on total. So, i = 1 to 16 (6 large and 10 small). S =market share of each firm . H= (0.152+0.152+0.152+0.152+0.152+0.152) + (0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012+0.012) = 0.136 (13.6%) The value of the Herfindahl index for the above market (13.6) indicates a high degree of market concentration among the six large firms. Under such a situation if the market shares of any of the six large firms decrease or increase then the value of the index would be increasing substantially. This is the reason for which the firms in the industry have adopted the decision of Cartel in the market (Riley, 2012). (c) It has been analyzed that the level of concentration among the firms in the above industry is high. Only six firms in the industry have occupied about 90% of the aggregate market share. On

Tabloids Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Tabloids - Essay Example As compared to broadsheet journalism, which is normally held together by a strong since of ethics and public responsibility, tabloids rely on pure entertainment and outrageous colors, features, and stories to try to lure in the imaginative reader. Often stories are crafted out of no factual basis, and are there instead to try to be as outrageous as possible for the sake of getting people's attention. They use a much looser idea of values and morals to try to make their point compared to broadsheet journalism. In a stunning twist of events, Clinton and Obama have been seeing coming out of a hotel late into the night. Could this mean a new political partnership between the two, or possibly an even darker secret love life between the two Could this all be an alien plot Late last night Democratic nominees Clinton and Obama were both seen on their way home from a late night meeting. The meeting, uncongenially, seemed to have taken place in an hotel room that was actually rented in McCain's name. The fact that McCain seems to pay for them to spend the night together is strange of itself, but seeing the two candidates embrace in a hug and passionate kiss as they left sparked the real controversy. This turn in events now leads people to wonder if in fact Clinton and Obama are really working together, and in more places than just the political bedroom. McCain helping them pay for the room also adds suspicion to what all of them are really up to. Is McCain paying them off to keep the fighting going longer so he can continue to campaign without a direct candidate Are Clinton and Obama really in love and want to run together As the saying goes, politicians do make strange bedfellows. Works Cited: http://spj.org/ethicscode.asp Society of Professional Journalists Tabloid

Greek and Norse Mythology. Essay Example for Free

Greek and Norse Mythology. Essay Greek mythology and Roman mythology are almost identical. This is an accepted fact, as it is widely known that the Romans stole the Greek myths. However, it is very interesting to note that the mythology of the Vikings (Norse) has many similarities with the Greek myths. These myths are, by no means, identical to the Greek ones (like the Roman ones are), but there are very distinct commonalities between the two. I see two possible reasons for this besides pure coincidence. The first has to do with the fact that Norse myths were codified during the Viking era: 780 1070. This gives the Norsemen many centuries to become exposed to the Greek (or Roman) myths. The Vikings did travel as far east as the Caspian sea, which is further east than both Italy and Greece. The Norse myths were fashioned after the fall of the Roman empire. During the expansion of the Roman empire, the Romans were able to get all the way to Britain, which is farther west than the Scandinavian countries where these myths originated. The Vikings made many expeditions into Britain. So it is a very realistic thought that the Vikings could have been exposed to the stories of the Greek and Roman gods. It is also possible that the Vikings could have extrapolated parts of the Roman stories into their own. The only two existing primary sources of Norse mythology are the Prose (Elder) Edda, and the Poetic (Younger) Edda. These were written about one thousand to eight hundred years ago respectively. The second factor has to do with mythology as an extension of the society that fashions it. I see mythology as an attempt by a people to explain the powerful forces which affect and shape it, that are beyond its control, such as weather, the elements, and nature. I also see gods as being characters that have many similarities with the people within the society. The gods and goddesses are powerful beings capable of super-human powers, but nevertheless are characters fraught with very human frailties and flaws. In this way they created gods that had similarities with the common man in the society. This made the gods more tangible and easier to identify with. I think that this was necessary because they were not yet at the societal maturity level to have a single god on a cosmic plane. Most of the comparisons will be examining the similarities between major Greek and Norse gods, as well as creatures, stories and specific symbols which are featured in the mythologies.

Wear Rate of an Advanced Polymer Coating Experiment

Wear Rate of an Advanced Polymer Coating Experiment CHAPTER 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION The general purpose of coating is to protect the substrate and to be decorative, enhancing the appearance of substrate in terms of gloss, colour, adhesion and wetability. Consequently, in addition, surface properties such as resistance to wear, indentation, and scratching are critical to retain the basic functions [1, 2]. Polymers are common materials which are widely used in industry. Polymer coating acts as a protective covering in corrosive environments. The properties of polymers depend largely on the structures of individual polymer molecules, molecule shape and size as well as how molecules are arranged to form a polymer structure. Polymer molecules are characterised by their very large size a feature that distinguished them from other most organic chemical compositions. The wear rate for an advanced polymer materials varies depending on the applied normal load and the sliding speed which is affected by size, shape, the matrix composition and the test conditions [3]. As the load decreases the contact becomes elastic with consequent changes in mechanism of friction. Epoxy resin are characterized by the presence of three- member cyclic ether group commonly referred to as an epoxy group, epoxies cross-link when a catalyzing agent (hardener) is added, forming a three-dimensional molecular network. Because of their outstanding bonding strength, epoxy resins are used to make coatings, adhesives, composite laminates and have important applications in the aerospace industry. Epoxy powder coating is still widely used today, especially as a functional and tough coating where flexibility, adhesion, toughness and corrosion resistance are needed. Epoxy coatings are based on epoxy resin; they are manufactured in a way which enables the possibility of coating to a certain thickness without defect in the coating after curing [14, 16]. Epoxy power coatings get a good adhesion to aluminium or steel surfaces, and provide a good corrosion protection layer (for indoor use). Most outstanding with powder finish is the excellent resistance against other chemicals. Epo xy powder coatings are suitable especially in aggressive environments. However, they are not suitable for external use where they become discoloured as the pigments are broken down by ultra violet rays when exposed to sunlight. They consequently become chalky and actually decreased in thickness as they are washed away [15]. 1.1 AIM The main aim of this project is to determine the effect of sliding speeds on the wear rate of an advanced Polymer coating. 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objective of this project is to investigate the wear rate of an advanced powder coating using a reciprocating linear ball-on-flat sliding machine. Due to the nature of the resources required to run the experiments, this investigation included the careful attention taken for wear testing especially in areas of the ball-on-flat sliding machine, data acquisition and wear rate calculation. The technical approach for the investigation will involved preparing different test specimens cured at temperatures of 140oC, 160oC, 180oC, and 200oC respectively. These test specimens would then be tested for one hour at sliding speeds of 0.02 m/s, 0.03 m/s and 0.04 m/s on a fixed normal load of 0.76 kg. Data from the wear testing would be acquired at once as electrical signals through with the help of electronic data acquisition devices. Also this would involve investigating and analysing the microstructure of the all the tested coated sample to see the level of damage done to it at the above temperatures and sliding speeds. CHAPTER 2 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 POLYMERS Modern scientific tools revolutionized the processing of polymers thus available synthetic polymers like useful plastics, rubbers and fibre materials says (Satish V. Kailas) [38]. As with other engineering materials (metals and ceramics), the properties of polymers are related their constituent structural elements and their arrangement. The suffix in polymer ‘mer is originated from Greek word meros which means part. The word polymer is thus coined to mean material consisting of many parts/mers. Most of the polymers are basically organic compounds, however they can be inorganic (e.g. silicones based on Si-O network). This chapter introduces classification of polymers, processing and synthesis of polymers, followed by mechanism of deformation and mechanical behaviour of polymers [10, 11, 38]. Polymers are classified in several ways by how the molecules are synthesized, by their molecular structure, or by their chemical family. For example, linear polymers consist of long molecular chains, while the branched polymers consist of primary long chains and secondary chains that stem from their main chains. However, linear does not mean straight lines. The better way to classify polymers is according to their mechanical and thermal behaviour. Individually, polymers are classified into two main classes plastics and elastomers [10, 11]. 2.1.1 PLASTICS Plastics are mouldable organic resins. These are either natural or synthetic, and are processed by forming or moulding into shapes. Plastics are important engineering materials for many reasons. They have a wide range of properties, some of which are unattainable from any other materials, and in most cases they are relatively low in cost. Following is the brief list of properties of plastics: light weight, wide range of colours, low thermal and electrical conductivity, less brittle, good toughness, good resistance to acids, bases and moisture, high dielectric strength (use in electrical insulation), etc. Plastics are again classified in two groups depending on their mechanical and thermal behaviour as thermoplasts (thermoplastic polymers) and thermosets (thermosetting polymers) [10, 11]. 2.1.2 TYPES OF PLASTICS 2.1.2.1 THERMOPLASTS These plastics soften when heated and harden when cooled processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated. These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous application of heat and pressure. They are linear polymers without any cross-linking in structure where long molecular chains are bonded to each other by secondary bonds and/or inter-wined. They have the property of increasing plasticity with increasing temperature which breaks the secondary bonds between individual chains. Common thermoplasts are: acrylics, Vinyl resins (PVCs), polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyimide, ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene and styrene) etc [10, 11]. Acrylics (poly-methyl-methacrylate) They are characterised by outstanding light transmission and resistance to weathering; only fair mechanical properties. Their applications are mostly in lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures (aeroplane windows), drafting equipment, and outdoor signs [17]. Polystyrene They have low specific gravity (1.07), availability in colours form clear to opaque, resistance to water and most chemicals, dimensional stability, insulating ability. Polystyrene is an excellent rubber substitute for electrical insulation. Styrene resin is moulded into battery boxes, dishes, radio parts, lenses, flotation gears etc [17]. Polyethylene These materials are flexible at room and low temperatures, waterproof, unaffected by most chemicals, capable of being heat-sealed, and can be produced in a variety of colours. Polyethylene, which floats on water, has a density range from 0.91 to 0.96% and is one of the inexpensive plastics, and its moisture-resistant characteristics ensure its use for packing and squeeze bottles [12, 17]. Polyethylene Polymer Table 2.1 Properties of polyethylene Polypropylene Polypropylene has excellent electrical properties, high impact and tensile strength and is resistant to heat and chemicals. Monofilaments of polypropylene are used in making rope, nets, and textiles. Polyimide These thermoplastics are produced in the form of solids, films or solutions. They have unusual heat-resisting properties up to 750oF (400oC), low coefficient of friction, high degree of radiation resistance, and good electrical properties. Products from this include sleeve bearing, valves seats, tubing, and various electrical components. The films, tough and strong, are used for wire insulation, motor insulation, and printed circuit backing [17]. ABS (Acrylonitrile, Butadiene, and Styrene) This plastic can be compounded to have a degree of hardness or great flexibility and toughness. The ABS plastics are used in applications that requires abuse resistance, colourability, hardness, electrical and moisture properties, and limited heat (2200oF (105oC). These plastics and processed by thermoforming injection, flow, rotational, and extrusion moulding. Applications include household piping, cameras, electrical hand tool housings, telephone handsets, and canoes [12]. Vinyl Resins These thermoplastic materials can be processed by compression or injection moulding, extrusion, or blow moulding. Vinyl resins are suitable especially for surface coating and flexible and rigid sheeting. The vinyl resins commercially available include polyvinyl chlorides (PVCs), butyrates, and polyvinylidene chloride. Polyvinyl chloride has a high degree of resistance, to many solvents and does not support combustion. It is used for rubberlike products including raincoat, packaging and blow-moulded bottles. Polyvinyl butyrate is a clear tough resin, which is used for interlayers in safety glasses, raincoats, sealing fuel tanks, and flexible moulded products. It has moisture resistance, great adhesiveness, and stability towards light and heat [17]. 2.1.2.2 THERMOSETS These plastics require heat and pressure to mould them into shape. They are formed into a permanent shape and cured or ‘set by chemical reactions such as extensive cross-linking. They cannot be re-melted or reformed into another shape but decompose upon being heated to too high a temperature. Thus thermosets cannot be recycled, whereas thermoplasts can be recycled. The term thermoset implies that heat is required to permanently set the plastic. Most thermosets composed of long chains that are strongly cross-linked (and/or covalently bonded) to one another to form 3-D network structures to form a rigid solid. Thermosets are generally stronger, but more brittle than thermoplasts [10, 11]. An advantage of thermosets for engineering design applications includes the following: high thermal stability, high dimensional stability, high rigidity, light weight, high electrical and thermal insulating properties and resistance to creep and deformation under load. There are two methods whereby cross-linking reaction can be initiated cross-linking can be accomplished by heating the resin in a suitable mould (e.g. bakelite), or resins such as epoxies (araldite) are cured at low temperature by the addition of a suitable cross-linking agent, an amine. Epoxies, vulcanized rubbers, phenolics, unsaturated polyester resins, and amino resins (ureas and melamines) are examples of thermosets [10, 11]. Phenolics These resins for popular for thermosetting applications. The synthetic resign, made by the reactions of phenol with formaldehyde, forms a hard, high-strength, durable material that is capable of being moulded under a variety of conditions. It is characterized by excellent thermal stability to over 150oC (that is, has high heat and water resistance) and can be coloured in a variety of way; may be compounded with a large number of resins, fillers [12]. It is used in manufacturing coating materials, laminated products, grinding wheels, and metals as well as glass bonding agents, and can be cast into moulded cases, bottle caps, knobs, dials, knife handles, electrical appliance cabinets and numerous electrical parts [17]. Epoxy Resins Epoxy resins, both monomers and oligomers, can be powders or they can be thick and clear or yellow liquids with strong and unpleasant odours. They are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, excellent mechanical and good electrical insulating properties. Moulding a fibre reinforced epoxy composite is much easier compared to other thermoset resins [19]. The typical applications of epoxy are in adhesives, electrical parts, coating and lamination process, moulds/dies/tools and in military, biomedical and automotive fields. Epoxy being a thermoset polymer, during the process of curing, when mixed with curing agent or harder, polymerises and cross-links. In other words, this curing agent reacts with epoxy resin monomers to form epoxy product. The curing agent selection will determine to a large extent the performance of the final epoxy composite. Table 2 below shows the properties of epoxy resins. Table 2.2 Properties of Epoxy resins Epoxy resins are the major part of the class of adhesives called ‘structural adhesives. These high performance adhesives are normally used in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, golf clubs, snowboards and other applications where strength bond are required. Also, they are exceptional adhesives for wood, metal, glass, and some plastics. Epoxy resins can be made flexible of rigid, transparent, opaque or coloured and fast setting or extremely slow setting. Furthermore, epoxy adhesives are unmatched in heat and chemical resistance among other adhesives. Usually requires heat curing for maximum performance [22]. Therefore epoxy adhesives cured with heat will be more heat and chemical resistant than those cured at room temperature. Also, the peak adhesion strengths achievable for epoxy/metal interfaces depends greatly on the types and sequences of wet chemicals used to treat the surface. For all these reasons, they are used in high performance and decorative flooring applications too [22]. Epoxy coatings are also widely used as primers to improve the adhesion of automotive and marine paints especially on metal surfaces where corrosion resistance is important. However, they are not used in the outer layer of a boat as they can deteriorate when exposed to ultra violet light. But they are often used during boat repair and assembly and also over-coated with conventional paints or marine varnishes which can provide ultra violet protection [23]. Also, metal cans and containers are often coated with epoxy to prevent rusting especially for foods like tomatoes, which are acidic in nature. In addition, epoxy resin is an excellent electrical insulator too. It helps to protect electrical components from short-circuiting due to dust and moisture. Hence, epoxy resins are important in the electronic industry, finding application in motors, generators, transformers, switchgears, bushings and insulators. Also, in the electronic industry, epoxy resins are the primary resin used in moulding integrated circuits, transistors and hybrid circuits. The cured epoxy is an insulator and a much better conductor of heat than air. Using epoxy in transformers and inductors greatly reduces hot spots which in turn give the component a stable and longer life than unprotected products [24]. Another interesting property of epoxy is that it does not stick to mould release compounds like paraffin wax, polyethylene sheeting, sandwich bags and the non glued side of packaging tape which is of great use during lay-ups and also during the manufacturing of precision parts. Though epoxy resins are more expensive than any other resins such as polyester resins, in brief, the purpose of selecting epoxy as the base resin for this research is because of its un-matching high chemical and thermal resistance, good adhesion to various materials, compatibility with various substrates and other additives, low shrinkage, availability of solvent free formulations, light in colour, easy to control viscosity and low vapour pressure besides holding good to excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties. The properties of polymers depend largely on the structures of individual polymer molecules, molecule shape and size as well as how molecules are arranged to form a polymer structure. Polymer molecules are characterised by their very large size a feature that distinguished them from other most organic chemical compositions. 2.1.2.3 ELASTOMERS Polymers are long-chain molecules that are formed by polymerization (that is by linking and cross-linking of different monomers. A monomer is the basic building block of a polymer. One of the fascinating properties of the elastomeric materials is their rubber-like elasticity. That is, they have the ability to be deformed to quite large deformations, and then elastically spring back to their original form. This results from the cross-links in the polymer that provides a force to restore the chains to their undeformed conformations. Elastomeric behaviour was probably fist observed in natural rubber; however, the past few years have brought about the synthesis of a large number of elastomers with a wide variety of properties. Typical stress-strain characteristic of elastomeric materials is displayed in figure 2 curve. Upon stretching, it is immediately noted that there is a flat region in the stress-strain curve. This essentially means that after an initial elongation, there is a region stretching which occurs without increasing strain. 2.2 CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING AND GLASS TRANSITION Polymers are known by their high sensitivity of mechanical and/or thermal properties. This section explains their thermal behaviour. During processing of polymers, they are cooled with/ without presence of presence from liquid state to form final product. During cooling, an ordered solid phase may be formed having a highly random molecular structure. This process is called crystallization. The melting occurs when a polymer is heated. If the polymer during cooling retains amorphous or non-crystalline state i.e. disordered molecular structure, rigid solid may be considered as frozen liquid resulting from glass transition. Thus, enhancement of either mechanical and/or thermal properties needs to consider crystallization, melting, and the glass transition. Crystallization and the mechanism involved play an important role as it influences the properties of plastics. As in solidification of metals, polymer crystallization involves nucleation and growth. Near to solidification temperature at favourable places, nuclei forms, and then nuclei grow by the continued ordering and alignment of additional molecular segments. Extent of crystallization is measured by volume change as there will be a considerable change in volume during solidification of a polymer. Crystallization rate is dependent on crystallization temperature and also on the molecular weight of the polymer. Crystallization rate decreases with increasing molecular weight. Melting of polymer involves transformation of solid polymer to viscous liquid upon heating at melting temperature, Tm. Polymer melting is distinctive from that of metals in many respects melting takes place over a temperature range; melting behaviour depends on history of the polymer; melting behaviour is a function of rate of heating, where increasing rate results in an elevation of melting temperature. During melting there occurs rearrangement of the molecules from ordered state to disordered state. This is influenced by molecular chemistry and structure (degree of branching) along with chain stiffness and molecular weight. 2.3 POLYMER COATING The task of coating technology is to provide surface protection, decorative finish and numerous special functions for commodities and merchandise by means of organic coatings. Many everyday products are only made useable and thus saleable because their surface treatment. To achieve this, relevant coating formulations, their production plant, the coating material and suitable coating processes for product must be available. However, the quality to be achieved by means of coating process is not the only function of the coating material used. The object to be painted or coated itself with its specific material and design and appropriate application process are further variables which play a significant role. Coating itself is a layer of material which is applied to a surface to decorate, preserve, protect, seal, or smooth the substrate; usually applied by brushing, spraying, mopping, or dipping [26]. There are two principal technologies that are the backbone of the coatings industry: Ø Liquid coating technology (wet), which has been applied for more than two centuries Ø Powder coating technology (dry), which has been applied on an industrial scale for some 30 years. 2.3.1 WHY POWDER COATING The global average annual growth for powder coatings has been approximately 7-9% over the last 10 years. From country to country worldwide these figures have varied considerably. This relatively high performance has been achieved by autonomous growth on the one side and by replacing liquid coatings on the other. Powder coating involves applying a finely grounded resin (powder) to a substrate and subjecting this powder to heat. During the heating process, the powder melts and creates a uniform, continuous coating [26]. The use of powder coating as a finishing process has grown significantly in the past several years. It dates back to the 1950s when powders were flamed-sprayed on metallic surfaces to protect them from corrosion and abrasion. As the process evolved, most powder-coating application involved lowering a heated part (sometimes referred to as a â€Å"ware† or a â€Å"substrate†) into a bed of fluidized powder. However, this process resulted in inconsistent film thickness. Electrostatic introduced in the early 1960s, enabled powder coatings to be applied to cold substrates, resulting in more uniform, thinner surface application and thus, savings in raw materials [26]. Today, powder-coating processes are employed in many production settings involving protective finishes. Powder formulations can be created to deliver cosmetic, protective, and longevity characteristic, and to achieve maximum hardness, chemical resistance, and gloss retention. More and more companies have turned to powder coating as a way to produce a high-quality finish while increasing production rates, cutting costs, and complying with increasing environmental pressures. Also, ongoing technological breakthroughs are continually knocking down the few barriers that hindered powder coatings ability to grow in the market. 2.4 POWDER COATING MANUFACTURING PROCESS The process of producing a powder coating is somewhat more complex, the equipments are numerous and the production time is somewhat long. This process can be simplified into 4 basic stages. 2.4.1 PREMIXTURE This is the first stage in the manufacture of a powder coating and is the most crucial for production. In this stage, the various sizes of resin flake, pigment powder, etc must be transformed into a homogeneous blend of similar sizes before they enter the extrusion stage. This is for the fact that the extruder is a simple melt mixer and not a very efficient disperser; the premix equipment consists of a mixing bowl with a locking cover. The equipment is usually fitted with a cooling jacket capable of being filled with running water or cryogenic gases. Inside the mixing bowl are mixing-blades placed at different heights and orientation to one another depending on the machine configuration [27]. 2.4.2 EXTRUSION This is the second stage of the powder coat manufacture. The extruder is composed of a horizontally placed barrel. Within the barrel is a cylindrical screw shaft that is slightly smaller than the barrel in diameter. As the shaft turns, the premix moves forward through heated mixing zones. The mixing zones contain attachments called paddles that knead the melted premix and blends the various ingredients. 2.4.3 GRINDING The third phase (grinding stage) is very important to its performance. This is because the average particle size and distribution are important in the application properties and final surface appearance. In the grinder, grinds the chilled and pressed extruded mix into fine particles. This is usually done using, impact/hammer mill, air jet mill or the air classifier mill. 2.4.4 SIFTING AND CLASSIFYING The final structuring of the particle size is accomplished by passing the ground materials through sieves or cyclonic separators. This is to sort out the distribution and average particle size of the powder. 2.5 ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF POWDER COATING Although equipment and materials cost are similar in powder-coating and liquid-coating processes, yet powder coating processes provide a number of advantages over other surface coating methods. These include: Fewer rejects. Less floor space required. Less material waste. Lower energy costs. Lower training and labour costs. Lower waste-disposal costs. More efficient cleaning operations. More uniform finishes. Powder coating materials are immediately ready for use. They do not have to be mixed with any other ingredients such as solvents or catalysts and are easy to apply, thus labour costs associated with training, setup, and processing are low when compared with liquid-coating processes [26]. Liquid coating usually requires thinning before application, leading to additional material and labour costs. This is not the case with powder coating. Liquid paint requires flash-off time before surface can re recoated which is not applicable to powder, meaning that racks can be spaced closer together and thus more parts per hour can be processed [25]. Powder coating processes results in fewer rejects than liquid coating processes. Since the former is a dry process, air and water associated problems such as sags, runs, and contaminations are almost eliminated. Blowing off the surface with an air hose and reapplying the powder can easily repair coating rejects in booth or application area. 2.5.1 THERMOSETTING POWDER Most powder coating materials are thermosetting powders. The greatest technological advances in powder coatings are being made in this area. Thermosetting powders are composed of solid resins higher in molecular weight than resigns found in liquid coatings and lower in molecular weight than those found in thermoplastics. The solid resins melt and flow chemically, and cross-link within themselves or with other relative components forming a higher molecular weight reaction product. The coating film formed by this reaction is heat stable and will not soften back to a liquid on further exposure to heat (Wick and Veilleux 1985). At these higher temperatures, a coating emerges with different chemical properties than before heating. Cured coatings have different chemical structures than basic resins. Newly formed cured materials are heat stable and will not re-melt to liquid after further exposure to heat. These powders are ground from brittle resin systems into fine particles in the range of 0.004 0.0016 in (10 40 um) or less. ‘Due to the rheology of these resin systems, they can produce thin like paint coatings in the range of 0.001 0.003 in (25 75 ÃŽ ¼m) with properties equivalent or superior to coatings produced from liquid-compliance technologies [33]. The types of resins commonly used in thermosetting powder include:  § Several types of epoxies  § Hydroxyl and carboxyl types of polyesters  § Several types of acrylics, and  § Several types of silicones. They require lower temperatures for curing than thermoplastic resins. Table 2.4 Main properties of different types of thermosetting powder coatings[27] Thermosetting powders chemical reaction begins in oven. Ovens produce and maintain heat-the sole cause of chemical reaction needed for in powder coating. P

Difference Between Acclimation And Adaptation Biology Essay

Difference Between Acclimation And Adaptation Biology Essay Adaptation for an animal is any genetically heritable trait that allows an individual to reproduce and pass on its genes. Example (Camels adapting to be able to survive long periods of time without water in the desert) Acclimation for an animal is the process by which an animal gets used to a changing environment. Example (If a deer lives in a forest, and one year that forest experienced a colder, then the deal would have to acclimate get used to the cold or move to a different forest) 10/10 List 5 protein types and their roles (functions) in organisms. Antibodies defense Motor / Contractile Proteins provide help with movement Structural Proteins provide structure and support Hormones initiate chemical reactions Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions Transport Proteins Help transport substances across the membrane 10/10 List 3 significant differences between DNA and RNA. The secondary structure of DNA is a double helix, the secondary structure of RNA is a hairpin. In DNA the 4 bases are Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, in RNA the 4 bases are Uracil, Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, the sugar in RNA is ribose 10/10 List 3 types of polysaccharides and their use in cells. Starch used to store energy in plants Glycogen used to store energy in animals Chitin used to provide structural support for the cell wall of bacteria, as well as the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects Peptidoglycan used to provide structural support for the cell walls of bacteria Celluose used to provide structural support for the cell wall of plants 10/10 Give a detailed explanation of the two methods by which molecules move across lipid bylayers. Active Transport Active transport describes when a molecule uses energy to cross a lipid bilayer Passive Transport Passive transport describe the movement of molecules across a membrane that does not require energy or ATP 10/10 For each of the following, tell whether the component is an organelle and briefly describe its function. Ribosome not organelle (make proteins for amino acids are protein builders / synthesizers. Mitochondria organelle (produces ATP) Lysosome organelle (break up food, and other particles to make it easier for the body to digest the food or said particles Vacuole membrane bound organelle (digestion, and getting rid of waste) Nucleus organelle (stores genetic information) 10/10 Give examples of the diversification in animal development in the areas of feeding, movement and reproduction. Diversification in animal feeding = some animals like deposit feeders (sea cucumber, worms, etc) eat through the sediment that is around them to obtain their nutrition. Filter feeders (certain types of whales) filter through water in order to obtain tiny crustaceans like krill. Many types of insects use a proboscis to obtain food like nectar, Humans, and many other animals like dear, bears, lions, otters, snakes, some fish, etc. have the presence of a jaw which allows them to eat. Diversification in movement = some animals like worms move with the a hydrostatic skeleton. Many other animals use the presence of limbs like legs, fins, tails, wings and other appendages to move. Other animals like snakes make coiling actions with their spine to propel themselves forward. Diversification in reproduction = some animals reproduce asexually, some animals are able to reproduce by budding (sea stars), and other animals (humans, some fish, deer) reproduce sexually. 10/10 List the differences between protostomes and deuterostomes. Protosomes developed an anus first then a mouth Deuterostomes developed a mouth first then an anus 5/10 What are coeloms, pseudocoeloms and hemocoels? Coelom = A fluid filled cavity within the mesoderm Pseudoceoloms = An internal body cavity of some invertebrates. Homocoel = A cavity or space in most arthropods and mollusks between the organs where the blood or fluid flows through or bathes the organs. 10/10 What is a hydrostatic skeleton and how does it work? Give one example of a specimen with a hydrostatic skeleton. A hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton that consists of fluid filled closed chambers, that generates movement as a result of muscle contractions. Examples worms 10/10 Describe the process of natural selection as postulated by Darwin. Darwins process of natural selection basically said that animals and species who dont have certain heritable traits or are unable to adapt to their surrounding will die out and species who have certain heritable traits or are able to adapt will live and produce offspring with those heritable traits. Natural selection doesnt affect the individual but the population. 7/10 Discuss the concept of behavior in which an animal sacrifices itself for the good of the species in the context of natural selection. (i.e. Does such behavior fit into Darwinian evolutionary models? Why or why not? Can you give or refute examples of it? Is this consistent with evolutionary models?) I think this question can be best answered with another question. Can animals (besides humans) feel emotion? Does another animal feel compassion towards other members of its herd enough so thats its willing to sacrifice its life? I believe the answer is yes. All mammals and most other animals have the natural tendency to protect their young and the young of the heard. For example in Africa when elephants are crossing the Serengeti and a young elephant is attacked by a lion or other predator, it is very common that many other members of the heard (not including his or her parents) will defend and in some cases die for that young elephant. We can also see this among dogs (whom I believe do have emotions for humans). In domesticated dogs there have been numerous incidents where the dog will defend their owners if they feel that their owner is threatened by another dog or what have you. This is because the dog feels the human as its own family or heard and would in some cases die for the greater good of his heard (human family). I personally dont believe that these examples dont fit into the Darwinian models, because theres no way to predict, or accurately count how many times an instance like this occurs. Darwinian evolutionary models show how animals adapt, die out, or reproduce depending on their surroundings. Sacrificing yourself for the greater good of your species / heard / family does not fit into that model. 12/15 List the differences between mitosis and meiosis. Meiosis = 2 cell divisions, chromosomes are halved, results in 4 haploid daughter cells, synapsis of homologs, different identical make up of chromosomes in daughter cell Mitosis = 1 cell division, chromosomes stay the same, results in 2 diploid daughter cells, no synapsis of homologs, identical make up of chromosomes in daughter cell 10/10 Asexual and sexual reproduction each have advantages and disadvantages. List one advantage and one disadvantage of each. The advantages of asexual reproduction are that it is more efficient than sexual reproduction. The disadvantages are that the offspring is going to have an identical genetic makeup which can possibly keep a bad gene in the in an offspring through generations of asexual reproduction The advantages of sexual reproduction are that with sexual reproduction you will get a variation on the genes with each offspring depending on the maternal and paternal genes. The disadvantage is that it far less efficient than asexual reproduction. In most cases of sexual reproduction you have to attract / get the consent of the opposite sex to mate via (songs, fighting over with other animals, displays, etc.) 10/10 Trisomy is the presence of an extra chromosome, while monosomy is the absence of a chromosome. Approximately 1 in 200 humans have a trisomic karyotype and about 1 in 5000 humans have a monosomic karyotype. What conclusions can you draw about the relative survivability of organisms with extra genes compared with those with missing genes? Explain why you think this would be so from an evolutionary prospective. From the number you have given me it would appear that the relative survivability of an organism with a monosomic karyotype is much lower than those with a trisomic karyotype. A monosomic karyotype is 50 times less likely to occur than trisomic karyotype, which causes me to believe that people with a monosomic karyotype would die out more quickly or be less able to reproduce, there for causing the gene to be less frequent in individuals. The fact that monosomic is becoming less frequent in individuals shows me that people are evolving to combat the issue, or the gene is dying / fading out. 15/15 The same genetic process is used to produce both sperm and egg cells, yet more than 90% of trisomies appear to be due to maternal errors. Give a hypothesis to explain why this might be so. How might one test this hypothesis? Its possible that there is a predisposition in all females that allow this error to occur. This could be similar to Tuner Syndrome where the end results are always sterile females. My guess is that the reason 90% of trisomies appear to be maternal errors is there is something in the female body or a slight different in the way something is produced that causes this error. However since 10% would appear to be a paternal error, the cause for the error in females must relate somehow the error in males. To test this hypothesis, I would run hundreds of tests in a laboratory to produce sperm and eggs and watch how each of them develop, exactly what goes into both of them, and see how they both develop under different conditions, and the exact conditions. From there I might be able to find the missing link to why this is happening. 15/15

Essay on Light and Dark in Antigone -- Antigone essays

Use of Light and Dark in Antigone    The "Golden Age" of Greece is noted for its many contributions to the creative world, especially in its development of the play. These performances strived to emphasize Greek morals, and were produced principally for this purpose. Antigone, by Sophocles, is typical. The moral focused on in Antigone is the conflict between physis (nature) and nomos (law), with physis ultimately presiding over nomos. Throughout Antigone, King Creon is a symbol for nomos, while Antigone stands on the side of physis. To portray these ideas, light and dark images are used as a recurring motif to reinforce the theme. Light is used to show something good that is happening, whereas dark is utilized to show something of which the gods disapprove. Following with tradition, this play uses light to portray what is right in the eyes of the chorus and darkness to reproach the other side. As the play is carried out, the chorus is constantly changing its opinions, first believing in the actions of Creon with respect to nomos, then unsure of what to believe, and finally seeing that Antigone's actions are more consistent with the morality of the gods and the truths of physis. Light and darkness are used to support in an emotional way the action of whoever the chorus is siding with at these various stages of the play. It is clear that at the beginning of Antigone, the chorus favors the actions of Creon, or nomos. This is shown as Creon's intentions and retribution towards Polyneices are justified by jovial words and imagery involving light. In the battle between Eteocles and Polyneices, although both leaders were killed, Eteocles' army was the victor. To show that this was positive in the eyes of the gods, the first lin... ... with connection to nomos was too high, and images referring to him are now dark and dismal. The play ends as the gods have turned their shoulder on Creon, and have made their final decision that Antigone is ultimately in the right. Because the sole purpose of Antigone is to get a moral point across, the parallels between light and dark and physis and nomos are associated together, and used metaphorically to add diversity and imagery to an otherwise redundant script. In the first scenes, these light and dark images show the reign of Creon. These are followed by the indistinct and ironic middle scenes, and end with the gods choosing Antigone's actions over Creon's, leaving Creon spiritually dead and paying for his poor choices and conduct. These are very effective techniques, which allow Sophocles to more fully develop his play, and give it a more emotional edge.

Hertzsprung-russell Diagram :: essays research papers

The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram or, the H-R Diagram for short, is a graph which plots stars according to their temperature and absolute magnitude. This graph reveals a pattern, which in fact is quite interesting. The H-R Diagram is named for the two astronomers, Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell, who discovered this pattern of stars. These two astronomers independently discovered that comparing magnitudes and spectral class (color) of stars yielded a lot of information about them. One key purpose of the H-R diagram is to show the relationship between temperature and absolute magnitude of stars. The type of temperature measurement used is Kelvin, where the zero point is equal to -273.16 C. On the H-R Diagram, the temperature of degrees Kelvin ranges from 3,000 to 30,000. The absolute magnitude of stars on the H-R Diagram ranges from +15 to -10. Absolute magnitude is how bright stars would appear if they were positioned at 32.6 light years away from earth. On this scale, the lower the number, the brighter the star. Thus, a start with an absolute magnitude of -10 would be much brighter than a star with an absolute magnitude of +15. The two astronomers found many patterns after developing their graph. They found that 90% of stars graphed fell within a band that ran through the middle of the graph. These stars range from cool, dim, red stars at the lower right of the H-R Diagram to hot, bright, blue stars at the upper left corner of the H-R Diagram. The stars that fall into to this band are known as main-sequence stars. Stars such as the sun, and almost every start visible in the night sky fall within this band of main sequence stars. There is another group of stars which are cool and bright that appear near the upper right corner of the H-R Diagram. These stars are very large and therefore have very big surface areas. These large surface areas give off large amounts of light and this makes the stars bright. Most of these stars are known as red giants. Some are so large however that they are referred to as supergiants. Red giants have a temperature of about 3,500 degrees Kelvin and an absolute magnitude of around 0. Supergiants have a temperature of around 3,000 degrees Kelvin and an absolute magnitude of about -7. Another group of stars, which are rather small, is found near the bottom left of the H-R Diagram.

Anthony Kiedis and the Red Hot Chili Peppers

The energetic singer of the alternative rock group, The Red Hot Chili Peppers, Anthony Kiedis was born on Nov. 1, 1962, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Kiedis' godfather was Sonny Bono, of Sonny & Cher fame. His parents split when Anthony was three. After getting into trouble at school, he moved to California to be with his dad. His father made most of his money selling drugs, CONTENTS †¢Synopsis †¢Aspiring Musician †¢The Red Hot Chili Peppers †¢Mainstream Success †¢Personal Life but also dabbled in acting. It was during these years that young Kiedis was exposed and influenced by the world of art, sex, music, and drugs.Singer, actor, writer. Born on November 1, 1962, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. As the lead singer of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Anthony Kiedis has become one of best-known figures in alternative rock. His parents split up when he was very young. He lived with his mother, Peggy, in Michigan and visited his father, John, in California. While with his fat her, Kiedis was exposed to the Los Angeles club scene where he got a chance to see such rock acts as the Eagles, Neil Young, Deep Purple, and Rod Stewart. Developing an aversion to authority at an early age, Kiedis acted out in school.He eventually convinced his mother to agree to let him live with his father in California. In his early teens, Kiedis moved in with his father and soon began experimenting with drugs. He started smoking marijuana and later tried heroin, cocaine, and Quaaludes. His father earned much of his money from dealing marijuana and other illegal substances, according to Scar Tissue, Kiedis’s official autobiography. By the mid-1970s, John Kiedis decided to try to make as an actor, taking classes and the stage name Blackie Dammet. Anthony also started acting, using his own stage name Cole Dammet.He landed a few commercials and small parts. Aspiring Musician At Fairfax High School, Kiedis met and made friends with Michael Balzary—better known later as Flea—and Hillel Slovak. Slovak had a band known as Anthym and Balzary eventually joined it as the bass player. Kiedis acted as the MC for some of their gigs. They were also interested in the emerging punk scene and caught shows by such acts as Black Flag. Kiedis moved out of his father’s place to live with a friend during the latter part of high school. Despite living in the midst of a party scene, he was able to keep up his grades.Kiedis did well enough to get accepted to UCLA. College, however, did not hold his interest for long. In 1982, Kiedis found inspiration for his vocal styling from the hit song, â€Å"The Message,† from Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. He started a band with friends Slovak and Flea—although they were already in different bands—with Jack Irons on drums the following year. The group that would become known as the Red Hot Chili Peppers became a popular fixture on the L. A. club scene. The group quickly went through a line-up change when Slovak and Irons left when their other band What Is This landed a record deal.Kiedis and Flea pressed on with their innovative funk-punk sound, bringing in guitarist Jack Sherman and drummer Cliff Martinez. The group eventually became known as the Red Hot Chili Peppers. The Red Hot Chili Peppers Their 1984 self-titled debut didn’t sell, but the group started to attract a following with their energetic live shows. Often over-the-top rebels, the Red Hot Chili Peppers even performed a few times while only wearing strategically placed tube socks. For their second effort, Freaky Styley, the group enlisted the help of funk superstarGeorge Clinton to serve as their producer.The album also marked the return of Slovak and Irons to the band. Kiedis’s off-stage activities were starting to take over his life. He was using heroin and cocaine heavily, so much so that his bandmates kicked him out of the group for a while. Returning to Michigan for a time, Kiedis went through detox. He returned to Los Angeles and the band, but did not stay clean for long. The Red Hot Chili Peppers released their third album, The Uplift Mofo Party Plan, in 1987. The album even made it onto theBillboard 200 album charts. The following year, Kiedis experienced a great personal loss.Longtime friend and bandmate Slovak died of a heroin overdose on June 25, 1988. After this tragedy, Irons decided to leave the band and Kiedis eventually went to a rehabilitation center. Trying to regroup, Kiedis and Flea added guitarist Blackbyrd McKnight and drummer D. H. Peligro to the group, but this line up didn’t work out. They then brought in guitarist John Frusciante and drummer Chad Smith and recorded Mother’s Milk. They began attracting more fans and more media attention. MTV aired videos for two tracks—â€Å"Knock Me Down† and their cover of Steve Wonder’s hit â€Å"Higher Ground. In 1989, Kiedis found himself in legal trouble for a post -concert incident. He was accused of sexual battery and indecent exposure after a concert in Virginia at George MasonUniversity that April, according to a report in The New York Times. He later paid a fine. CONTENTS †¢Synopsis †¢Aspiring Musician †¢The Red Hot Chili Peppers †¢Mainstream Success †¢Personal Life Mainstream Success Working with producer Rick Rubin, the Red Hot Chili Peppers experienced a major career breakthrough with their next album BloodSugarSexMagik in 1991.The album sold more than 4 million copies, spurred on in part by such hits as â€Å"Under the Bridge,† â€Å"Give It Away,† and â€Å"Suck My Kiss. † Frusciante ended up leaving the group before it joined the alternative music tour Lollapalooza in 1992. After a few false starts, the Red Hot Chili Peppers eventually replaced Frusciante with guitarist Dave Navarro, once with Jane’s Addiction. This latest line up recorded 1995’s One Hot Minute, which went platinum. â€Å"Aeroplane† and â€Å"My Friends† were two of the biggest hits from the album.In July 1997, Kiedis was involved in a motorcycle accident in Los Angeles. He broke his wrist and forearm when he was hit by a car while riding his motorcycle. The following year, Kiedis sued the driver for damages. By the time the Red Hot Chili Peppers released their 1999 hit recordCalifornication, Frusciante was back in the band, replacing Navarro who left to pursue solo projects. â€Å"Around the World,† â€Å"Scar Tissue,† and the title track all did well on the rock charts. 2002’s By the Way was also a strong seller, making it to the number two spot on the Billboard 200. Personal LifeKiedis borrowed the title from their hit â€Å"Scar Tissue† for his candid 2004 autobiography, in which he described his extensive drug use and relationships with such women as actress Ione Skye and director Sofia Coppola. He also disclosed that he had battled hepat itis C. â€Å"As a person and a musician, I feel like I’m just getting started. . . . I kind of look at this as the halftime report,† Kiedis said to Peoplemagazine during an interview about his book. For the first time in 2006, the Red Hot Chili Peppers reached the top of the Billboard 200 album charts with Stadium Arcadium.Kiedis soon experienced another first—he became a father. He and then girlfriend Heather Christie welcomed son Everly Bear in October 2007. The couple split up in 2008. That same year, Kiedis told Rolling Stone that the Red Hot Chili Peppers was â€Å"disbanded for the moment. † The band had tour extensively to support their latest album, and everyone wanted to take a break for a time. In addition to relaxing, Kiedis recently served as festival curator for the New American Music Festival, which was held in August 2008.

Mcdonald’s Five Forces

M ATTRACTIVENESS IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD Mergers and acquisitions form the majority of FDI deals in the developed world, but remain relatively scarce as a mode of entry in the developing world. The infrequent use of M as a foreign direct investment (FDI) entry modality into developing regions has motivated this study. As a first step in exploring the M paradigm in developing markets this paper will classify and rank the M attractiveness of 117 developing economies. Further, the distinction between FDI attractiveness and M attractiveness at a country and regional level will be illustrated. Mergers and acquisitions, as a mode of FDI are rare in developing countries. Only 26, 9 percent of the 11059 FDI developing economy deals documented in this study and concluded between 2004 and 2006 were cross border merger and acquisition deals, the remaining 73% of deals were all greenfield. Within the period 2002 to 2004, mergers and acquisitions made up a mere 19% of the total number foreign direct investment (FDI) deals concluded in developing economies. In contrast, cross- country mergers and acquisitions held far greater appeal in the developed world where M outnumbered greenfield FDI deals by making up 51% of the total FDI deals concluded over the same period 2002 to 2004 (UNCTAD, 2007). The clear preference for greenfield deals in the developing world indicates that there exist elements within locations attractive to M which are distinctive from those locations attracting greater greenfield activity. In order to understand these elements, M attractive and unattractive locations must first be identified and classified. M and greenfield are two distinct modes of entry with differing motivations and dissimilar host country effects. M involves the purchase of a controlling share of stock in an existing host country firm with production capacity (Raff et al, H. , Ryan, M. and Stahler, 2008) whereas 1 greenfield investments see the foreign firm building its own independent business, and sourcing all resources directly from the market (Nocke and Yeaple, 2007). The FDI attractiveness of economies has been well explored in the literature. However, research on the role of FDI in economic development is dominated by a generalised view of FDI where the separation of entry mode strategies was not central. Several authors have commented on the underreporting of M as a process distinct from the FDI umbrella in the literature; these same authors have begun to explore in greater depth the M concept (Kogut & Singh, 1988; Raff et al, Ryan & Stahler, 2005; Nocke & Yeaple, 2007 & Haller, 2008). The M literature is concentrated on the developed economies of the world as the greatest volume of M activity has historically occurred in developed regions. Much of the literature on M describes the increasing number of these deals and its importance in global FDI, often by referring to the global total (Haller, 2008; Bjorvatn, 2004; Horn & Persson, 2001, Shimizu, Hitt, Vaidyanath, Pisano, 2004). None of these studies have referred to the relative scarcity in utilisation of M in the developing world relative to the developed regions of the globe. This paper aims to make a contribution not just to the emerging literature on M but also to its particular developing economy paradigm. The methodology of this study allows for the identification and ranking of FDI attractive economies, M attractive economies and for the distinction to be drawn between M attractive economies at the country level and M attractiveness at a regional level. At the country level M attractive economies are economies which attracted more M than greenfield deals internally i. e. economies attracting a greater ratio of M activity to greenfield investments. Regional M attractive economies were defined as economies which whilst attracting large volumes of M activity within a region were not attracting a greater number of 2 M deals internally. Greenfield deals continue to dominate these markets. In other words these countries were M attractive by virtue of being FDI attractive. FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING ECONOMIES Understanding the distinction between developed and developing economies and foreign direct investment in these markets is fundamental to this study. Per capita income, an indicator of the wealth and potential of a market, is an important manifestation of the differences between developing and developed economies. Unfortunately however, developing economies are subject to frequent policy regime switches and growth rate volatility when compared against the group of developed economies (Aguiar and Gopinath, 2007). Productivity in emerging markets is unstable, here the cycle of political and economic shocks have become trends (Aguiar and Gopinath, 2007). The income inequality, higher poverty levels, governance, institutional contexts (North, 1994; Peng and Heath, 1996) and the level of economic and human development of developing economies is offset by the fact that since the early 1990’s these countries have also been the fastest growing market in the world for products and services (Khanna and Palepu, 2005). The strategic choices made by multinationals engaging in developing markets must necessarily be considered with respect to the above mentioned host country factors. Many developing economies which are characterised by an accelerated pace of economic development and a liberalisation or opening of their economies by the application of free market principles are termed emerging economies (Hoskisson, Eden, Lau, Wright, 2000). Other rapid growth countries included in this group are the transition economies of Eastern Europe which were historically planned economies but have now adopted free market principles (Hoskisson et al, 2000). 3 The literature is dominated by developed economy FDI. However, FDI patterns observed in developed countries cannot be generalized to transitional or developing economies (Pan, 2003). Blonigen and Wang (2005) have established that the factors determining the location of FDI â€Å"vary systematically† between developing and developed countries (Blonigen and Wang, 2005). In their paper, Phylatakis and Xia (2006) investigate the dynamics of global, country and industry effects in firm level returns between developed and emerging, markets. Their findings show that especially for emerging markets, country effects are more important than ndustry effects in explaining return variation for firms (Phylatakis and Xia, 2006). Sethi, Guisinger, Phelan and Berg (2003) believe that FDI flow should not only be studied at a firm level but additionally at a country level as country level factors affect the decisions of all firms over time (Sethi et al, 2003). In addition, not all of the hypothesized relationships in the literature on FDI (e. g. ex change rates and source country size) were supported in a study on the transitional economy of China (Pan, 2003). This suggests that the developed and developing region FDI paradigms should be studied as distinct entities. LOCATION FACTORS Encouraged by superior technology, faster and cheaper communications and motivated by intensifying competition, businesses are able to scour the globe in search of locations offering advantages which increase the competitiveness of the firm. Location advantages refer to the institutional and productive factors which are present in the particular geographic area chosen for FDI (Galan and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006). Dunning’s OLI theory explains a firm’s choice for a particular FDI destination. First the home based firm must possess an ability which it is able to 4 exploit abroad and which is portable. This is termed the ownership advantage (the O advantage) of the firm. The ‘L’, which is the focus of our research, refers to the location which must have desirable qualities and offer advantages to the firm. Examples of this would include large markets, production factors including cheap or skilled labour or natural resources. A locational advantage would enhance the profits of a firm. The ‘I’ refers to internalisation, which implies the firm has more to gain from the total control of the asset than by allowing control to rest with export agents or licensees (Dunning, 2001). Tong, Alessandri, Reur and Chintakananda (2008) find that country and industry effects and their interaction substantially influence firm performance. The authors advocate that industries with growth opportunities learn how to exploit country specific factors by locating operations there. Even though low labour costs are used by many developing economies to attract FDI (e. g. China and Vietnam) studies show that it is of far less consequence to FDI attraction than host market size and distance. Total costs of production taken together are however largely influential in the direction of FDI flows. High labour costs may be mitigated by the infrastructural spend on health and education which would result in a healthy, skilled and more efficient workforce which in turn acts to lower costs (Bellak, Leibrecht and Riedl, 2008). In understanding M attraction it is important to first mention the literature on FDI attraction, that is why firms go to foreign locations. According to Fontagne and Mayer (2005), firms will go to foreign locations if there exists sufficient demand in the country or region, total production costs incurred at the location are low, intense competition is not a threat, public policies are advantageous and institutions create productive and efficient economies in which to operate. Foreign locations may also be desirable in order to leverage economies of scale, take advantage of arbitrage opportunities involving factor costs, to diversify and reduce risk, exploit distinctive 5 dvantages to gain market and to escape from increasing home market competition (Rugman & Li, 2007 and Rugman and Verbeke, 2001). Therefore we may expect that economies offering locational factors conducive specifically to M will display greater attractiveness values. In light of the statements above, host country demand amongst other factors is responsible for the decisions of firms to choose foreign locations it leads us to believe that market size or the GDP of a country has an important role to play in M attraction. Therefore it may be expected that the larger a countries GDP the greater the M activity it will attract. First documented by Knickerbocker (1973) is an idiosyncrasy in the movement of firms. Firms follow into locations where other firms from their industry have already entered despite the increase in competitive intensity this generates. Therefore M attractiveness may also be related to the number of firms already functioning within the host market. This agglomeration tendency may be linked to supply chain and input-output linkages. Further by locating affiliates close to other multinational affiliates they may be able to benefit from absorbing technological spillovers. The effect of this would be the lowering of R costs and raising the firm’s competitiveness by enabling it to stay abreast of competitor strategy (Fontagne and Mayer, 2005). REGIONAL COUNTRY LEADER EFFECT Part of the focus of this paper is to explore a regional dimension of FDI and M. Much of the literature on regional leadership effects concerns Japanese FDI into the Asia-Pacific region. The ‘flying geese’ model by Ozawa describes the trend where mature products and industries are shifted from one country to another more peripheral lower cost destination within the region 6 (Ozawa, 2003 and Kojima, 2000). As the host country costs rise so it too moves toward higher value add products and the production of the good moves to the next low cost destination (Edgington and Hayter, 2000; Hart-Landsberg and Burkett, 1998). In this way advantages such as technology, employment, real incomes and innovation may cascade through a region (Clark, 1993). Several studies have shown that when MNC’s first plan to internationalise they choose geographically and culturally proximate regions, this is known as the ‘market familiarity principle’. In this way home based skills, advantages, management and resources may be leveraged to minimize transaction costs (Gomes and Ramaswamy, 1999). In ‘Regionalism and the Regionalisation of International Trade’, Gaulier, Sebastien and UnalKesenci (2004) explain the idea that regionalisation is a natural pattern and that the volume of inter-neighbour trade between countries is high due to the economic sense of trading over shorter distances. Various studies find that countries have the bulk of their foreign trade concentrated within a particular triad region (Gaulier, Sebastien and Unal-Kesenci, 2004; Rugman and Verbeke, 2004). In their study on 64 Japanese multinationals Collinson and Rugman (2008) found that only three operated globally with the remainder concentrating 80 % of their operations (sales & assets) intra-regionally. More importantly, with implications for this study and the attraction of M, was the finding that region-specific regionalisation trends are linked to changes in infrastructure, information or cultural ties. Large regional trade agreements, especially when a custom union exists, were also shown to have positive effects on trade volume and created lucrative opportunities for foreign producers. The trade agreements allowed access to a large market from a single country, even if it was a smaller market than its neighbours (Gaulier, Sebastien and Unal-Kesenci, 2004). This paper 7 reinforces the importance of institutions in developing regional trade and mentions specifically that a positive â€Å"gravity† factor of regionalisation could be the swift acceleration of GDP growth of other countries within a region. Policy makers should take note that contractual relationships present significant risks to foreign MNE’s in host countries which have linguistic, legal and economic institutions systems vastly different from the home country (Clark, 1993). Promoting and facilitating corporate governance would have a positive impact on inter-company linkages with the resultant promotion of regional development. The ability to access risk finance and instruments make it critical for a firm to operate in an advantageous national location within a region (Clark, 1993). Pajunen (2008) reinforces the above idea of a MNE firm searching for the most advantageous location within a region. In order to access the rapidly expanding emerging economy market a firm may make a strategic decision to enter South America or South–East Asia and will then search for the most attractive location within that region to trade from (Pajunen, 2008). As we have seen in an earlier paragraph, the growing number of regional trade agreements allows the MNE to transact with minimal trade costs within a region. The regional leader attracts the most FDI in a region. This research asks the question who attracts the most M and why? This question may be answered by the findings of Qian, Li, Li and Qian (2008). Qian, Li, Li and Qian (2008) confirm that firms are regionally focused and also offer an explanation for the regional internationalisation of firms rather than a fully global expansion. They find that firms’ costs are lower intra-regionally and hence performance is enhanced. They add however that a threshold to performance is reached intra-regionally and that a developed country MNE may maximise performance by entering into a moderate number of developed country regions and a strictly limited number of developing regions as costs here are substantially 8 ifferent. They advocate the careful selection and allocation of resources in developing regions as over-diversification here will result in costs outweighing benefits (Qian et al, 2008). This reinforces the idea of a regional FDI leader in the developing country context that is a ‘safer’ haven for MNE resource allocation. Taking into ac count this evidence, it is possible to assume that as regional cooperation is enhanced so inter-regional trade is encouraged which results in greater amounts of FDI and M which will flow into a regional leader country with the safest reputation. MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS An imperative of a foreign investment entry strategy is to minimise the cost of entry in order to render the venture more profitable. Cultural barriers and socio-political differences between the entrant and host raise the cost of transacting and thus the entry mode chosen will attempt to reduce this. M AND CAPABILITY SEEKING MULTINATIONALS Firms have capabilities in their own markets which are not necessarily internationally mobile, may not be useful in a foreign market or the firm may require a set of additional competencies to operate successfully in the foreign market (Anand and Delios, 2002). Anand and Delios (2002) offer a description of upstream capabilities which are described as fungible and portable; an example of this may be intangible technological know-how. By engaging in a cross-border M the firm is able to access the local knowledge and downstream capabilities of a local firm and use this to supplement its portable advantages in serving the new host market (Nocke and Yeaple, 2007). Examples of capabilities or advantages which the local firm may possess include brand, marketing and sales force knowledge, privileged access to 9 istribution channels, a capability to manoeuvre through local ‘institutional voids’ and challenges (Khanna and Palepu, 2005), emission rights for environmental pollution, landing slots at airports, scarce land or oil/mineral extraction rights amongst others (Horn and Persson, 2001). Fungible upstream capabilities are a stronger driver for acquisitions than downstream capabilities which are less fungible (Anand and Delios, 2002) . Developing countries are less likely to have superior technological capabilities than the potential developed country acquiring firm. The lower sophistication of the developing market would therefore limit the number of acquisition targets available for a developed country MNE. Acquisition targets for downstream capabilities (marketing, brand etc. ) would hold greater appeal in countries with large target markets. The number of M deals can therefore be expected to relate to market size (GDP) and market sophistication (represented by aspects like the level of human development and infrastructure). The number of M deals will also be related to the number of local acquisition targets available which in turn is dependent on the level of development of the country. ACQUISITION DRIVERS The initial choice to engage in FDI over export is dependent on how profitable the firm expects the greenfield or M to be. The second strategic choice of greenfield over M is related to the firm's ownership of productive assets and varies both across and within industries (Raff, Ryan and Stahler, 2005). A cross border-merger provides access to a foreign market whilst a national merger relieves domestic competitive pressure. When trade costs are low however national mergers do not reduce competitive pressure and firms will seek access to foreign markets through a cross-border merger. Economic integration results in lowered trade costs and therefore increased competition which is likely to increase the profitability of acquisitions (Bjorvatn, 2004). The lowering of trade costs 10 which is dependent on host country regulations will therefore increase the level of cross-border M activity. The literature describes one of the main advantages of cross-border M to be the access which it provides to a foreign market (Horn and Persson, 2001) whilst within border mergers are generally attributed to relieving domestic competitive pressure (Bjorvatn, 2004). Raff et al (2008) explains that firms entering a foreign market will approach local firms with a merger and acquisition or joint venture proposal in order to enjoy the synergies of such a relationship. Raff et al (2008) maintain that a merger & acquisition offer will be accepted by the local firm if the profitability and success of a greenfield investment by the multinational is likely and credible. Further, the greater the anticipated profitability of the greenfield investment the lower the merger & acquisition price offered to the local firm. Hence M& A would be preferred over greenfield as the entry costs would be lowered. The choice of greenfield over M will depend on the number of competitors in the market and the market potential as this affects the anticipated profitability of the greenfield venture or the cost of the M (Raff et al, 2007). This leads us to hypothesize that countries with greater market potential (GDP, GDP per capita and HDI) and fewer local competitors will result in a lowering of the cost of an M which in turn results in increased volumes of M. CULTURAL CHALLENGES AND THE ‘LIABILITY OF FOREIGNNESS’ Mergers and acquisitions and partially owned ventures offer the opportunity for a foreign MNE to access local assets such as brand, distribution networks and a client-base which is difficult to mobilise from home by working with local established companies (Petrou 2007). In instances where large cultural distances exist between home and host countries, Brouthers and Brouthers 11 (2000) advocate the use of acquisitions in order to confer legitimacy and cceptance on the foreign MNE. However, M involve greater costs when the cultural distance is high and therefore Chang and Rosenzweig, (2001) assert that firms would be more likely to choose greenfield entry to avoid the costs of integrating diverse company cultures. Greenfield investments offer total affiliate control and avoid post merger cultural difficulties but take a far longer time period to establish market presence and require substantial experience and know-how of local conditions (Chang and Rosenzweig, 2001). Most recently Slangen and Hennart (2008) have found that MNE’s will prefer acquisitions in culturally distant locations if they have little international experience or if they plan to grant the subsidiary autonomy in marketing. If they are internationally experienced or have no market related concerns then a greenfield is preferred in culturally distant locations. The entry choice is also industry-specific depending on the resource requirements of the firm. Manufacturing operations tend to favour greenfield deals whereas in advertising where brand and product are tailored to local tastes acquisitions are preferred as FDI entry strategies (Kogut and Singh, 1988). The above information alludes to the idea that M will tend to occur in the services industry as it confers on the MNE an understanding of, acceptance within and access to a foreign market. The information examined above dealt with the cultural challenges of M. The next section will broach the subject of institutional challenges in M deals especially in developing economies. M FAILURE 12 Approximately 70%-80% of all mergers fail (Bretherton, 2003) and KPMG reports only 17 % of cross border M s create value while 53% destroy value (Shimizu, Hitt, Vaidyanath, Pisano, 2004). These statistics may be part of the explanation for the lower volumes of M deals in developing economies where investor firms may be wary of entering into deals already known to have high failure rates and then compounding this in an environment fraught with challenges i. . developing regions. Therefore many organisations choose to enter into strategic alliances and joint ventures which allow them the benefits of searching for new market opportunities, sharing in innovation and technology, overcoming host regulatory requirements and developing new capabilities. Importantly however these alliances are easier and less costly for companies to enter and exit should the need arise. IMPORTANCE OF LEGAL AND FINANCIAL FRAMEWORKS TO SUPPORT MNE’S Market inefficiencies related to the resource profile and institutional profile of a host economy may be overcome by the entry strategy of the MNE. Chang and Rosenzweig (2001) assert that an acquisition is the quickest way for a firm to build a sizable presence in a foreign market. The challenges of this mode however involve the post acquisition cultural merge, the risk of overpaying and an inability to fully assess the value of the acquired assets (Chang and Rosenzweig, 2001). In a developing market context additional challenges to M include the scarcity or absence of legal, financial and institutional organisations and structures through which the deal could be investigated, formalised and protected and is further complicated by the existence of burdensome host country regulations relating to ownership (Khanna and Palepu, 2005). HYPOTHESIS 13 It is expected that M attractive economies in the developing world may be identified as a group distinct from FDI attractive economies depending on the context of the location factors of the host economies. It can therefore be hypothesised that M attractiveness does not equal FDI attractiveness and that varying levels of M attractiveness occur. RESEARCH DESIGN SAMPLE AND DATA SOURCES The World Bank and UNCTAD, through the annual World Investment Report and World Investment directory, publish data on over 210 economies which are divided into developed and developing economies. In this study data were assembled for 117 developing and transition economies. Blonigen and Wang (2004) in their examination of the FDI experiences of developed and developing economies conclude that the variation of data across these groups makes it inappropriate to pool data on them in empirical analyses. A further rationalisation for the isolation of developing economies from developed economies in this paper can be found in North (1994), he writes that the experiences of actors in highly developed modern economies may not be compared to that of individuals operating under conditions of uncertainty, political or economic. In order to identify regional FDI leaders, for the purpose of this study, the country data was divided into regional groupings (see table below) according to the United Nations Statistical Office as published in the UNCTAD World Investment Report classification for 2007. [Table 1 about here] VARIABLES AND MEASURES The analysis aims to separate FDI attractiveness from M attractiveness and to rank the attractiveness of developing countries to mergers and acquisitions. The data for value and volume 14 of M in the sample of developing economies was taken from the latest available M and greenfield data published by UNCTAD (based on data from Thomson Financial) over the period 2004 to 2006. Six variables were created. The table below describes, explains and shows the grouping of the variables. Group A in table 2 below represents country M attractiveness. Two measures numbers 1 and 2 were used to measure attractiveness at the country level. One is volume based; that is the number of deals in one country as a percentage of the country’s total deals, whilst two is value based that is the dollar value of deals which flowed into the respective country as a percentage of GDP. Thus the measure for country level M activity has two dimensions in this way the variable carries richer information and is less likely to be skewed by a single, large dollar value deal. As this measure is computed using per country total deals and per country GDP as the denominator, it is an intra-country measure. Group B in table 2 represents regional M attractiveness and contains 3 measures. Again both a volume and a dollar value were used to measure regional M activity for the same reasons listed above for country attractiveness. If for example a country attracted one very large dollar value deal, but no other deals, it may be read as an M attractive economy when in fact it only attracted a single deal. This regional group of variables is computed using the number of total regional M deals, the number of total regional FDI deals and the dollar value of the total regional FDI inflow as the denominators. Thus it measures the country’s M volume and value respective to the regional total. It is an intra- regional value. Group C in table 4 contains one measure for the FDI attractiveness of a country in a region. This measure includes all deals (greenfield and M) which a country attracts with respect to the total number of deals concluded in its geographic region. 15 [Table 2 about here] METHOD OF ANALYSIS The statistical challenge in this study was to find a method which would allow for the separation of FDI attractive economies from M attractive economies and of M attractive from M unattractive economies. Two statistical methods were utilised to test the variables. A cluster analysis allowed for countries with similarities based on the variables to be clustered together. A principal component analysis was performed in order to create an M attractiveness ranking of the sample countries. CLUSTER ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION TO CLUSTER THEORY A cluster analysis is a statistical tool which allows for the discovery of meaningful structures within data without explaining why they exist. This allows data to be sorted into groups or categories where the members of each group have a high degree of association with each other and a minimal association if they belong to another group. Thus this technique places the economies under study into clusters based on well defined similarity rules and finds the most significant groups of objects. (http://www. statsoft. com/textbook/stcluan. html) Clustering is the term used to describe the presence of separate and distinct groups in the data however if clustering is not recognized by failing to visually inspect the data (scatterplots or another graphing technique), the correlation coefficient may suggest that no relationship exists even though within each cluster a clear relationship may indeed exist (Siegel, 2000). As an initial exploratory step and in order to determine which of the variables listed in Table1 were most successful in dividing the economies a cluster analysis was performed. 16 The data for some variables such as GDP had a very different scale to the some of the smaller scale values e. g. Polcon 3 index. The data was thus standardized to allow each variable an equal opportunity to display significance in the cluster analysis and prevent any one variable dominating (Boudier-Bensebaa, 2008). A cluster analysis was run on the variables listed in table 2 above. A four cluster solution was accepted as all the clustering variables proved to be significant. PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS ANALYSIS A principal components analysis allows for the identification of underlying factors in the variables which account for the largest variance amongst the data set of 117 countries. Table 3 below shows the variables used in the principal component analysis grouped at the country and regional level. This analysis is undertaken in order to create an attractiveness value per country which allows the developing countries to be ranked based on their M attractiveness score. Understanding Principal Component Analysis The principal component analysis (PCA) is a data reduction technique that distils the essence of several variables into a smaller number of components which explain the variance in the data. The regional and country variables listed above showed correlations but rather than discard them they are rolled into a two factor composite M attractiveness value one factor for regional attractiveness and one factor for country attractiveness. The principle of parsimony (simplicity and reduction) is followed by creating an attractiveness value out of the variables, in this way more meaningful and richer measure is created and the dimensions of the data set become more manageable (Siegel, 2000 p586; Berenson & Levine, 1986). 17 The Eigen analysis is the name of the mathematical technique used in PCA. Eigen values show the percentage of variance explained by each component, the largest Eigen value is the first principal component, the second largest Eigen value is the second principal component, and so on. (http://www. fon. hum. uva. nl/praat/manual/Principal_component_analysis. tml). The Eigen values for our study were determined; these values were then plotted on a scree plot to illustrate the importance of each of the components. A factor analysis was performed on the all the variables in table 3 above. The PC analysis will create factors by reducing the data into its underlying dimensions. These factors allow for an attr activeness score to be generated for each country. THE VARIABLE DENOMINATORS [Table 3 about here] The country level variables were expressed as percentages of per country GDP, per country FDI inward stock and total number of per country FDI deals. Therefore outcome values expressed are all calculated with respect to intra-country measures. The regional level variable denominators included the total FDI flows into a geographic region, the total number of M deals in a region and the total number of FDI deals in a region (e. g. Central America, North Africa etc) and are expressed as percentages. Therefore all values are calculated with respect to regional totals. By separating the variables a richer result is obtained, the analysis is able to pick out regional leaders and interesting countries which may not be FDI attractive but nevertheless are M attractive. If the analysis had not made the distinction between attractiveness at the country level 18 and regional level the interesting case of Libya where M deals predominate would have been lost as its total FDI is so small. RESULTS: THE FOUR CLUSTER SOLUTION, DESCRIPTIONS AND MEMBER COUNTRIES The results of the four cluster solution is summarised as a profile plot with the means percentages included in table 4 below. The premise that a country level and regional level group exist in the data was confirmed with the cluster analysis. All the countries in cluster 1 showed a high value for the intra-country number (or volume) of M deals respective to the other clusters. Cluster 1 countries are intra-country performers. They do not perform well at a regional level. Cluster 4 countries are country level performers like cluster 1 but perform better on M dollar sales value than on M volume. For the purpose of this study clusters 1 and 4 are both considered as country level performers, their distinction lies in a difference of measure that is volume of M deals versus value of M deals respectively. Cluster 2 displays a strong performance on the regional level M variables. Cluster 2 also displays the strongest regional FDI attraction. Cluster 2 countries are regional performers. [Table 4 about here] [Table 5 about here] [Figure 1 about here] Cluster 3 countries do not perform on any of the variables; they may be labelled poor M performers. Table 5 above lists the member countries of each cluster. In light of the descriptions defined above, each of the four clusters has displayed distinctive mean characteristics based on a regional and country distinction and on the strength of the M 19 ttraction. In order to illustrate each clusters level of attractiveness graphically, the clusters have been plotted onto the axes above (Figure 1), the y axis representing country attractiveness and the x axis representing regional attractiveness. PC ANALYSIS AND EIGEN VALUES: The PC analysis in table 6 below shows the reduction of the five variables into a two factor solution which explains 80, 3 % of the variance of the underlying variables. The Eigen value is the variance explained by each factor of the underlying variables. [Table 6 about here] The PC analysis onfirmed the premise held of there being both a regional and a country effect in the data by loading all the regional variables on factor 1 and the country variables on factor 2. Factor 1 is a regional M attractiveness factor and factor 2 is an intra- country M attractiveness factor. The 117 countries on the data table are run against these attractiveness values in order to obtain a regional and a country level attractiveness value for each. This is accomplished by multiplying each country’s variable score by the factors in the table. The regional PC factor value allows for the generation of a regional attractiveness value for each country whilst the intracountry PC value allows for the generation of an intra-country attractiveness value for each country. Two lists are thus created, a list of the 117 developing countries with regional attractiveness values and another containing the same 117 developing countries with intra-country attractiveness values. PER COUNTRY ATTRACTIVENESS VALUES AND RANKING: 20 In order to make sense of the country and regional attractiveness values each list was ranked and ordered so that the countries appear in order of attractiveness. The top quartile or quartile 1 (Q1) is the least attractive to M activity, the bottom quartile or quartile 4 (Q4) is the most attractive. Therefore the higher the ranking the more M attractive the country is. The following countries were not ranked as they had no M activity: Azerbaijan, Brunei Darussalam, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guyana, Honduras, Myanmar, Nepal, Paraguay, Qatar, Senegal and Suriname. At the regional level the most M attractive economies were India, RSA and Brazil, Russia, Turkey and Mexico, Table 7 below lists and ranks the most regionally M attractive economies. Table 8 ranks the least attractive regional economies with Burkina Faso, Yemen and Albania being the most unattractive M economies regionally. The countries most attractive to M at the country level that is those countries attracting a greater number of intra-country M than greenfield deals are listed in Table 9, the top ranked countries are Mauritius, Burkina Faso, Bulgaria, Panama, and Ghana. The most unattractive country level economies for M activity are listed in Table 10, with the UAE as the most unattractive followed by Tanzania and Saudi Arabia. Table 7 about here] [Table 8 about here] [Table 9 about here] [Table 10 about here] [Figure 2 about here] 21 Figure 2 above is a scatter plot of the country level economies list on the ‘y’ axis and the regional level economies list on the ‘x’ axis. The most attractive country level economies (attract more M than greenfield internally) can be seen on the upper left section. The most attractive M economies on t he regional list can be seen on the lower right section of the plotted area. These economies attract the most M deals in their geographic regions. The line drawn through the origin recreates the M attractiveness axes shown in Figure 1 which can be superimposed over this plot. DISCUSSION For both sets of analyses the regional FDI leaders correlated. This list included the Cluster 2 countries and top ranked regional M attractive countries (India, RSA and Brazil, Russia, Turkey and Mexico). The large market sizes of these regional leader countries have several implications in terms of M attraction. First, large markets attract market seeking MNE’s, the literature shows that these firms are likely to utilise M as a mode of entry (Buch and De Long, 2001). The fact that they are economic hubs and attract greater volumes of FDI than other developing countries also results in an increased presence of foreign affiliates operating in their markets (Qian and Delios 2008; and Kolstad and Villanger, 2008). These affiliates are likely to be followed by service industry firms (following their domestic clients) into these foreign markets (Qian and Delios 2008) thereby creating a virtuous circle for increased FDI and M activity. These countries are FDI poster boys in their respective regions and are M attractive by virtue of being FDI attractive. A distinct group of countries emerged as country level M leaders in the PC analysis and as the members of clusters 1 and 4. These comprise an interesting and eclectic mix of countries which include amongst others Mauritius, Burkina Faso, Bulgaria, Panama, Ghana, Kyrgyzstan, Armenia, Croatia, Ukraine, Colombia, Yemen and Azerbaijan. They are not regional FDI leaders but 22 attracted a greater amount of M activity than greenfield activity. In these countries, M attractiveness is not distorted by the regional leader effect and associated FDI attractiveness; hence M host location attractiveness can be studied in a purer form. Differences exist between the regional leader group and the country level leader groups which make these groups unique. The Cluster 4 and top ranked country level M attractive economies must possess some interesting locational features considering that these are smaller economies which do not comprise the largest markets in the sample. Given that M are more frequently used as a mode of entry in developed countries, location features may exist in the country level attractive group which mimic certain developed market conditions. M attractiveness at the country level may be a marker for development. The cluster 2 and regional leader groups whilst attracting large volumes of M activity within a region were not attracting a greater number of M deals internally. Greenfield deals continue to dominate these markets. In other words, it is partly true that these countries were M attractive by virtue of being FDI attractive. Examining however the PC analysis at the country level of M attraction and the cluster 4 countries in the cluster analysis, we are able to identify true M attractive economies i. e. economies attracting a greater ratio of M activity to greenfield investments. It can now be stated that FDI attractiveness does not automatically mean M attractiveness as the analysis has isolated clear groups of countries which are FDI attractive and which attract more greenfield activity and those which are M attractive. Lipsey comments on the absence in the literature of the effects which FDI may have on a country’s consumers. Mergers and acquisitions may result in the consolidation of industries increasing the monopoly power of firms with resulting higher prices (Haller, 2008; Nocke and 23 Yeaple, 2007). Greenfield operations would have the opposite effect by reducing the power of local producer monopoly positions and increasing local competition. At the same time superior technology and innovation brought in by the acquiring firms may improve local production efficiencies thereby lowering the local cost of goods (Lipsey, 2002). The dissimilar spillover effects of greenfield versus M is a clear motivation for the two modes of entry to be analysed and understood as distinct entities, even though much of the literature on the developmental role of FDI treats FDI as a single entity (Dunning & Narula, 1996; Dunning 2001; Rugman & Li, 2007). The effects of M investment into developing regions, local linkages and their impact on growth and development in the host may also be areas of great interest especially to policy makers. Future research directions would be to identify exactly what the macro-economic markers of development are which attract M to certain developing economies. 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(2008) Do multinationals really prefer to enter culturally distant countries through greenfields rather than through acquisitions? The role of parent experience and subsidiary autonomy, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol 39, No 3, p 472-490 Tong, T. W. , Alessandri, T. M. , Reur, J. and Chintakananda, A. (2008) How much does country matter? An analysis of firms’ growth options, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol 39, No 3, p 387-405 UNCTAD (2008) World Investment Report 2008, Transnational Corporations and the Infrastructure Challenge, Chapter 1 Global Trends, p 7-9 27 TABLE 1: REGIONAL DIVISIONS OF 117 ECONOMIES No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Regional Divisions North Africa West Africa Central Africa East Africa Southern Africa South America No. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Regional Divisions Central America Middle East (West Asia) South Asia South-East Asia Southeast Europe CIS (Transition economies) 8 TABLE 2: EXPLANATION OF VARIABLES Variables for the Cluster Analysis Value Based or Volume Explanation of Variable Distinction A – Country level attractiveness variables 1 – M deals per country as a % of total number of country deals 2 – MA sales as % of GDP avg 2004-2006 volume based Examines the volume of per country M deals relative to the total number of FDI deals entering that country. The int ra- country proportion of M to FDI in terms of volume. Examines the value of per country M deals relative to the GDP of the same country. An intra-country measure of the proportion of M to GDP in terms of value. Examines the volume of per country M deals relative to the M deal volume of countries in the region. An inter-country but intra-regional measure. Examines the volume of per country M deals relative to the volume of total FDI deals (greenfield & M) of countries in the region. An inter-country but intraregional measure. Examines the value in $'s of per country M sales relative to the value of all FDI inflows into the region showing the country's share or proportion of M sales value in the region. Examines which country in a region attracts the most FDI deals in total (greenfield & M) to show regional FDI leader. value based in US $'s B – Regional level attractiveness variables 1 – M deals per country as a % of total regional M's 2004-2006 2 – no of per country MA deals as a % of all regional deals 2004-2006 3 – M sales per country as a % of total regional FDI inflow ( US$ millions) 20042006 no of deals per country as % of total regional deals 20042006 volume volume value in US $'s C – Overall FDI attractiveness variable volume 29 TABLE 3: PRINCIPAL COMPONENT VARIABLES Level attraction Country level of Combined Country Level And Regional Level Variables In Order To Create Component Attractiveness Values At The Country Level And At The Regional Level M sales per country as a % of FDI inward stock per country (US $millions) 2004 -2006 MA sales as % of GDP average 2004-2006 M deals per country as a % of total regional M's 2004-2006 no of per country MA deals as a % of all regional deals 2004-2006 M sales per country as a % of total regional FDI inflow ( US$ millions) 20042006 Regional level 30 Table 1: profiles of cluster means for a 4 cluster solution 31 Table 5: CLUSTER COUNTRY MEMBERS Cluster 1 Belize Brunei Daruss Burkina Faso Congo Guatemala Kyrgyzstan Libya Macedonia, Mozambique Nicaragua Paraguay Qatar Rwanda Swaziland Zimbabwe Cluster 2 Brazil India Indonesia Malaysia Mexico Romania Russian Fed South Africa Thailand Turkey UAE Cluster 4 Armenia Bulgaria Colombia Croatia Ghana Mauritius Panama Ukraine Cluster 3 Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Belarus Bolivia Bosnia & Herz Botswana Cambodia Cameroon Chile Congo, DRC Costa Rica Cote d' Ivoire Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Cluster 3 Ethiopia Gabon Georgia Guinea Guyana Honduras Iran Iraq Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kuwait Lao PDR Lebanon Madagascar Mali Mauritania Moldova Morocco Myanmar Namibia Nepal Cluster 3 Nigeria Oman Pakistan Peru Philippines Saudi Arabia Senegal Sierra Leone Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Syria Tajikistan Tunisia Turkmenistan Uganda Tanzania Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela Viet Nam Yemen, Zambia 32 Table 6: Results of PC Analysis Level Of Attraction Country level Regional level Combined Country Level And Regional Level Variables In Order To Create Component Attractiveness Values At The Country Level And At The Regional Level. M sales per country as a % of FDI inward stock per country (US $millions) 2004 -2006 MA sales as % of GDP average 2004-2006 M deals per country as a % of total regional M's 20042006 no of per country MA deals as a % of all regional deals 20042006 M sales per country as a % of total regional FDI inflow ( US$ millions) 2004-2006 Expl. Var Regional Attractiveness Factor 1 Intra-Country Attractiveness Factor 2 %Variance Explained Components by -0. 015066 0. 857492 0. 085347 0. 847898 0. 936657 0. 036875 0. 962411 0. 013174 0. 864350 2. 558174 0. 051764 1. 458437 80. 3 % 33 Table7: REGIONAL LEVEL ATTRACTIVENESS- most attractive ranking Regional Level M Attractiveness Quartile 4 -Most Attractive Rank Regional Attractiveness M Attractiveness Value Above Average India South Africa Brazil Russian Federation Turkey Mexico Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Romania Argentina UAE Egypt Bulgaria Ukraine Chile Colombia Peru Pakistan Philippines 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 4. 47456 3. 59947 3. 11423 2. 70295 2. 18032 2. 10503 1. 96844 1. 83932 1. 50218 1. 00295 0. 95504 0. 71507 0. 58127 0. 49219 0. 48130 0. 41931 0. 40345 0. 13893 0. 12567 0. 10631 34 Table 8: Regional level attractiveness- least attractive east attractive Regional Level M Attractiveness Quartile 1Least Attractive Rank Regional M Attractiveness Attractiveness Value Below Average Regional Level M Attractiveness Quartile 1Least Attractive2 Rank Regional M Attractiveness 2 Attractiveness Value Below Average 2 Burkina Faso Yemen Albania Tajikistan Belize Turkmenistan Lao PDR Gabon Sri Lanka Botswana Guinea Kuwait Cote d' Ivoire Kyrgyzst an Iran Swaziland Sierra Leone Mali Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Mauritania Armenia Algeria Bolivia Cambodia Moldova, Republic of Belarus Macedonia, TFYR Lebanon Nicaragua Congo, Republic of Angola Congo Democratic 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 -0. 81391 -0. 62301 -0. 59695 -0. 58134 -0. 56980 -0. 56586 -0. 55855 -0. 54206 -0. 53908 -0. 53824 -0. 53655 -0. 53403 -0. 53331 -0. 52797 -0. 52388 -0. 51088 -0. 51028 -0. 50993 -0. 50966 -0. 50856 -0. 50707 -0. 50669 -0. 50637 -0. 50389 -0. 50075 -0. 49762 -0. 49691 -0. 49085 -0. 48372 -0. 48345 -0. 48291 -0. 48068 Costa Rica El Salvador Rwanda Madagascar Syrian Republic Bangladesh Uzbekistan Georgia Iraq Viet Nam Bosnia Herzegovina Tanzania Kenya Mozambique Namibia Oman Bahrain Saudi Arabia Zimbabwe Zambia Ecuador Uganda Panama Sudan Venezuela Kazakhstan Mauritius Ghana Tunisia Nigeria Jordan Croatia and Arab 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 -0. 46264 -0. 46137 -0. 46100 -0. 45911 -0. 45391 -0. 45035 -0. 44220 -0. 42553 -0. 42284 -0. 41269 -0. 41006 -0. 40278 -0. 37712 -0. 37626 -0. 36841 -0. 35828 -0. 35541 -0. 35395 -0. 35140 -0. 34751 -0. 31359 -0. 31281 -0. 31113 -0. 30115 -0. 25848 -0. 22807 -0. 21374 -0. 21133 -0. 17359 -0. 13017 -0. 12656 -0. 09001 35 Uruguay Guatemala 33 34 -0. 46757 -0. 6471 Morocco 67 -0. 07754 Table 9: Country level M attractiveness- most attractive countries Country Level M Attractiveness Quartile 4 Most Attractive Rank Attractiveness Value Above Average Mauritius Burkina Faso Bulgaria Panama Ghana Kyrgyzstan Armenia Croatia Ukraine Colombia Yemen Romania Turkey Sudan Tunisia Uzbekistan Mauritania Peru Ecuador Indonesia Lao PDR South A frica Macedonia Pakistan Belize Kuwait 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 5. 44211 4. 67217 2. 45823 2. 04796 1. 89195 1. 06603 0. 90303 0. 87151 0. 82457 0. 81623 0. 78430 0. 77845 0. 71227 0. 65421 0. 2570 0. 36499 0. 32190 0. 26612 0. 24742 0. 23859 0. 20139 0. 10116 0. 04362 0. 04359 0. 03089 0. 01879 36 Table 10: Country level attractiveness- least attractive Country level M attractive Q1- least attractive UA E Tanzania Saudi Arabia Angola Libya Belarus Sri Lanka Algeria Guinea Iraq Iran Sierra Leone Mali Zimbabwe Cote d' Ivoire Viet Nam Mozambique Bahrain Madagascar Oman Tajikistan Cambodia Congo Turkmenistan Mexico Zambia Lebanon Venezuela Congo Swaziland Rank Attractiveness value below average -0. 69652 -0. 68043 -0. 68009 -0. 67564 -0. 67419 -0. 66567 -0. 66410 -0. 66351 -0. 66076 -0. 66060 -0. 64409 -0. 3906 -0. 62707 -0. 62270 -0. 62038 -0. 61471 -0. 61461 -0. 59631 -0. 58028 -0. 57740 -0. 57596 -0. 56811 -0. 56112 -0. 55555 -0. 55058 -0. 54445 -0. 53035 -0. 51967 -0. 50304 -0. 48027 Country level M attractive Q1- least attractive2 Rwanda Russian Fed Guatemala Philippines Gabon Brazil Bangladesh Uruguay Costa Rica Botswana India Moldova Bolivia Egypt Nigeria Argentina Thailand Namibia Albania Bosnia & Herzeg Malaysia Kazakhstan Kenya Georgia Morocco Chile Uganda Nicaragua Jordan Syria El Salvador Rank2 Attractiveness value below average2 -0. 46953 -0. 46579 -0. 46387 -0. 45862 -0. 43042 -0. 40607 -0. 39852 -0. 8454 -0. 38399 -0. 33595 -0. 31087 -0. 30362 -0. 28460 -0. 28442 -0. 28428 -0. 25341 -0. 23769 -0. 22207 -0. 22091 -0. 22082 -0. 21129 -0. 18592 -0. 18396 -0. 16633 -0. 14784 -0. 09800 -0. 06308 -0. 03914 -0. 03806 -0. 01932 -0. 00700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 37 Figure 1: M attractiveness axes -regional/country 38 Figure 2: REGIONAL LEVEL ATTRACTIVENESS C OUNTRIES PLOTTED ON ‘Y' AXIS; COUNTRY LEVEL M ATTRACTIVE COUNTRIES PLOTTED ON ‘X’ AXIS. 39 APPENDIX 1-EXCLUDED DATA In addition to the developed economy data, the following economies were also excluded from the study: Caribbean and Oceania economies (many of these island economies were very small, atypical and had missing data); China (over 48 % of the total number of deals for South and SouthEast Asian region were concluded in China in order to avoid skewing the findings for the rest of the region, Chinese data was excluded); Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and Korea (these economies exhibit higher levels of development and sophistication than the rest of the sample and exhibit FDI levels higher than the typical developing countries of the sample group of this study); St Helena, Guinea Bissau, Mayotte, Reunion, Falkland Islands, French Guiana, Palestinian Territory, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Maldives and Timor Leste (these